No clouds. No night. No fossil fuels. Just endless power from a construction project that sounds too wild to be real. More than a decade ago, a Japanese construction company unveiled a plan to build a massive belt of solar panels around the Moon’s equator. The concept, called the Luna Ring, would stretch for 6,800 miles and generate uninterrupted solar power without any of the weather or darkness problems that plague Earth based arrays. The project received little attention at first, but after the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster in March 2011, Japan suddenly had a much sharper interest in alternative energy sources. The numbers are hard to ignore. Shimizu Corporation, the firm behind the proposal, claims that Earth based solar panels can only generate one twentieth of the energy produced by an equivalent array in space. On the lunar equator, there is no atmosphere to block sunlight, no clouds, and no night on the sunlit side, meaning the system could run continuously around the clock. Tetsuji Yoshida, president of Shimizu’s space consulting group CSP Japan, told ABC News that if all the energy from the lunar panels reached Earth, there would be no need to burn coal, oil, or biomass ever again. The Luna Ring solves a basic problem with terrestrial solar power: intermittency. On Earth, solar farms stop producing at night and lose efficiency during cloudy weather, but the Moon has virtually no atmosphere, meaning nothing blocks the Sun’s rays. Along the lunar equator, one side or the other is always bathed in sunlight, enabling true 24 hour power generation. Here is how the energy would travel. Solar cells on the lunar equator convert sunlight into electricity, and built in cables carry that power to the near side of the Moon, the face that always points toward Earth. There, transmission facilities convert the electricity into microwave beams and high energy lasers aimed at receiving stations on the ground. On Earth, specialized antennas called rectennas capture the microwaves and convert them back into electricity for the power grid. According to Shimizu’s proposal documents, the system could also use the energy to produce hydrogen fuel for storage and transportation. The goal is a complete shift away from fossil fuels and toward a hydrogen based society. Building anything on the Moon is extraordinarily difficult, so Shimizu plans to rely almost entirely on robots. These machines would be tele operated from Earth 24 hours a day, performing tasks like ground leveling, excavation of lunar crust, and assembly of equipment. A small team of astronauts would support the robots on site, but humans would play a secondary role. The construction would also use lunar resources as much as possible, reducing the need to haul materials from Earth. Moon soil is an oxide compound, and by importing hydrogen from Earth, workers could produce water and oxygen from the lunar surface. The same soil could be turned into concrete, ceramics, glass fibers, and even the solar cells themselves. Shimizu’s proposal includes self propelled production plants that would move along the lunar equator, manufacturing solar cells from local materials and installing them as they go. The solar belt would range in width from a few kilometers to 400 kilometers at its widest point, wrapping the entire circumference of the Moon. A transportation route along the equator would carry construction materials, with power cables buried underneath. For all its ambition, the Luna Ring faces one overwhelming obstacle: money. Masanori Komori, an economist with the Institute of Energy Economics in Japan, told ABC News that lunar solar power sounds good in theory but costs too much. He argued that Japan should focus on more realistic alternatives like geothermal power, which is already available and far cheaper to develop. Yoshida himself admitted that he has no concrete estimate of the project’s cost. The technology required is still in the research phase, including the ability to beam gigawatts of power across 238,855 miles of space with pinpoint accuracy. The microwave and laser transmission would require guide beacons on Earth to ensure the beams hit their receiving stations, a feat never attempted on this scale. Despite these hurdles, Shimizu’s proposal argues that all the basic ingredients already exist. Sunlight is free, solar panels are mature technology, and both microwaves and lasers are well understood. The challenge is scaling everything to an unprecedented degree and doing it on the surface of another world. As of the source documents from 2011, the Luna Ring remained a conceptual dream project on Shimizu’s official website. The company had not secured any funding, received no official endorsement from space agencies like JAXA or NASA, and had no active development timeline. The proposal was featured on NASA’s Lunar Science Institute website but generated little interest beyond that. The Fukushima disaster changed the conversation temporarily. With 54 nuclear reactors generating 30 percent of Japan’s energy supply and more than half of them idled after the meltdown, the Japanese public and government became more open to unusual alternatives. Yoshida noted that his plan had been quiet for a year before suddenly receiving attention after the March 2011 earthquake and tsunami. No public updates from Shimizu have moved the project beyond the proposal stage. Yoshida remains confident, telling ABC News that all the team is doing is using existing resources: sunlight, solar panels, microwaves, and lasers. “If we can continue to do the research,” he said, “we think there’s a huge chance this could become reality.” Arezki is an Editor-in-Chief and Project Manager based in Japan, specializing in science and technological innovation. Originally from Algeria, he holds a Foreign Languages Diploma from Lycée Zamoum Mohamed, a BA in English from Université Mouloud Mammeri de Tizi Ouzou, and a Nursing Diploma from the Bel Air Institute in Boghni. Bridging science, communication, and humanity, he explores how space research and emerging technologies shape the future of health and society, leading global editorial projects at The Daily Galaxy that translate complex ideas into engaging, cross-cultural stories. The Daily Galaxy –Great Discoveries Channel is an independent media. Support us by adding us to your Google News favorites:
The company Businesses Sustainability Innovation Employment Investors Press Center Planet energy Tuesday, June 10, 2025 Spain’s capacity to produce solar energy, a safe and efficient renewable source, is well known. Whether in large photovoltaic parks which can reach 50,000 hectares in Spain or for domestic use, solar panels are an element that we are becoming increasingly familiar with. The conventional solar cells that make up these panels are mainly made of silicon, which is capable of transforming between 17 and 19% of the sunlight it captures into usable energy, an indicator that measures its level of efficiency. After years of development, it is now possible to find high-efficiency solar panels that reach between 20 and 23% photovoltaic conversion. But how do the sun’s rays turn into electricity? When sunlight hits a panel, the photovoltaic cells absorb light particles—known as photons—and release electrons in a process that generates an electrical current, which is then transformed into electricity. That is why the scientific community is researching new solutions to increase photovoltaic conversion levels in order to meet the challenge of obtaining more useful energy from the same surface area. And, in that race, perovskite solar cells (PSC) are at the forefront. Efficiency, flexibility and price This new material, discovered in 2009, is a type of solar cell made from a mineral composed of calcium oxide and titanium, the application of which is attempting to break the Shockley-Queisser theoretical limit, set at 33.7% for conventional solar cells. According to the Solar Energy Institute of the Polytechnic University of Madrid, the technological development of PSCs in the laboratory has gone from “2.8% to 27.7% photovoltaic conversion” in just 15 years, surpassing “the efficiency limits of the best silicon solar cells.” This success is exemplified by the University of Oxford. A scientific team from the Physics Department at the prestigious British university developed a new ultra-thin material last year—up to 150 times thinner than a silicon wafer—based on the multi-junction approach. This new material achieved an energy efficiency of over 27%, certified by the National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology of Japan (AIST). “We believe that, over time, this approach could allow photovoltaic devices to achieve efficiencies above 45%,” predicted postdoctoral researcher in Physics at the University of Oxford, Shuaifeng Hu, after the publication of the study conducted in the laboratory. Based on a synthetic material that can be produced at a low cost, their price is another advantage of these solar cells compared to silicon, which is much more difficult to extract. And as they are a thin, more flexible and lightweight film, they could cover almost any surface: from vehicle roofs to buildings, windows or even mobile phones. Tandem cells: from alternative to complementary As explained above, silicon solar cells convert around 20% of solar energy, or, if understood in reverse, it could be said that they waste 80% of solar light, while perovskite solar cells capture a wider spectrum of light in a single cell. Combining the potential of both components results in tandem cells, where perovskite is placed at the top of the cell to absorb high energy light with shorter wave lengths, while crystalline silicon is placed below to capture low energy light from longer waves. Instead of being seen as alternatives, when working together these cells allow, in the eyes of experts, to surpass the theoretical efficiency limit of a single solar cell. The current record for efficiency was set by Longi, a Chinese solar technology company, with a conversion of 34.85%, certified by the US National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), surpassing its own previous record of 34.6% from June 2024. Durability, its “kryptonite” Scaling up the production of this laboratory technology to the commercial phase is the next challenge. Despite their multiple advantages, perovskite cells are currently limited by their durability, as they degrade more quickly when continuously exposed to the sun. Paradoxically, the light they convert into electricity is, at the same time, their biggest obstacle. In this regard, the FQM-204 Group from the University of Córdoba, with the participation of theGeorgia Institute of Technology, has managed to maintain the performance of the photovoltaic cell after one thousand hours of sun exposure thanks to a “geometric adjustment” in a laboratory-scale test. This advance confirms this alternative to traditional panels, laying the foundations for the new solar energy paradigm. ¡Riégame!
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Solar Fabrik has introduced a 400 W red-brown glass-glass PV module designed to meet strict aesthetic requirements for historic and protected buildings, offering a 20.02% efficiency and compatibility with traditional tiled rooftops. Image: Solar Fabrik From pv magazine Deutschland Solar Fabrik has developed a red-brown solar module designed for use on historic buildings and in heritage-protected areas where strict aesthetic requirements apply. The “Mono S4 Halfcut Chroma Orange” module is a colored panel intended to blend with traditional red-tiled roofs. The company cites an efficiency of 20.02% and a power output of 400 W. It is a bifacial monocrystalline n-type glass-glass module with 96 tunnel oxide passivated contact (TOPCon) half-cells, measuring 1,762 mm × 1,134 mm × 30 mm and weighing around 24 kg. The front glass is a 2 mm copper-red pane similar to RAL 8004 and features an anti-reflective coating, while the aluminum frame is also color-matched to a similar tone (RAL 8011). The module is rated for a maximum system voltage of 1,500 V and operates in temperatures ranging from −40 C to 85 C, with a power temperature coefficient of −0.29% per degree Celsius. In terms of durability, the module is designed to withstand hail impacts from ice balls up to 40 mm in diameter at speeds of up to 29.2 m/s, and snow loads of up to 5400 Pa. Solar Fabrik offers a 30-year product and performance warranty. Shipments to distributors are scheduled to begin in April, while pricing has not been disclosed. This content is protected by copyright and may not be reused. If you want to cooperate with us and would like to reuse some of our content, please contact: editors@pv-magazine.com. More articles from Sandra Enkhardt Please be mindful of our community standards. Your email address will not be published.Required fields are marked *
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Lawmakers on both sides of the aisle seem in favor of an “all of the above” approach to lowering energy costs. But are large solar farms being unfairly placed in a single part of the state? Rep. Carol Hall (R-Enfield) shares frustrations from her constituents and her idea for making things more equitable. Stream Connecticut News for free, 24/7, wherever you are. Mike Hydeck: Now lawmakers on both sides of the aisle have said publicly an all above strategy is needed when it comes to bringing down what feels like sky high electricity rates here in Connecticut. But recently, large solar panel farms are getting some serious pushback from neighbors in Enfield. Representative Carol Hall is on the Finance, Revenue and Bonding Committee. Republican from Enfield, you have constituents right in the middle of this debate. Welcome to Face the Facts. Good to see you, I’m so glad you were able to be here. So this was such an interesting debate, because everybody wants to do clean energy, everybody wants to bring in new kinds of energy to bring the prices down. When you go to these meetings, what do you hear? Carol Hall: So it’s kind of interesting how we handle these huge solar utilities, right? When you have building projects going on in your community, your homes, additions, you and I have to comply with local planning and zoning regulations. Right? These huge what they call solar farms, we call them solar utilities, up by me, are not regulated at all by local regulation. So our local communities, our local planning and zoning departments, have no say on the placement of where these utilities go. So it’s all done through the siting council process. It’s done and overseen by this huge regulation body for the state of Connecticut. Mike Hydeck: So the siting council has how many people on it? Any idea? Carol Hall: I don’t, but it doesn’t have local representation on it. That’s one of the bills that’s working its way through this legislation process. Mike Hydeck: That was my next question, Who is it? So if there aren’t local representation, who sits on it now? Face the Facts with NBC Connecticut goes beyond the headlines, asking newsmakers the tough questions, giving an in-depth analysis of the big stories. Carol Hall: Right. It’s just regulatory people. Mike Hydeck: DEEP? People from environmental protection? Carol Hall: Yes. And their… their sole mission is oversight of these projects. They are so, there’s so little regulation on local say in the process right now. We’re trying to change that. So some of the bills you’re going to see coming through really revert some of the oversight back to the local officials. So your local first selectman, your local town council. Yeah, so we’re hoping that, what’s happening right now is most of these solar arrays are focused in one region, which is my district. I represent East Windsor and Enfield. Mike Hydeck: But you’re talking acres of panels, right? Like, a significant amount. Carol Hall: Oh, hundreds, yeah. And basically it’s a third of the state solar arrays in this one area of the state. All in Enfield and East Windsor. Mike Hydeck: Okay. And there’s a reason for that. We did a story on this recently. It’s because there’s a lot of farmland. It’s flat, and it’s connected to distribution lines. So once you put those panels up, it goes straight, straight into the grid, or to short run, is that right? Carol Hall: Exactly. And the problem with that is there are placements up there that are perfect for these solar arrays. And if you look at everybody’s plan of conservation development that the state tells us as communities, you have to have a template for your town for 10 years. In the plan of conservation development, a lot of these towns have addressed where they want these solar arrays. For example, commercial zoning, industrial zoning. Parking lots. bunch Mike Hydeck: So if you had a bunch of warehouses out in a field, it would make sense to put them there. Carol Hall: Yeah. Or even brownfield areas. There’s so many brownfield areas throughout the state that we could actually place these solar arrays and they would have zero impact on our neighborhoods. So what we’re saying is not that we don’t want these projects, but there’s a place for them, and it’s not in people’s backyards. Mike Hydeck: Your constituents, we’ve interviewed some of them. They’re hearing a buzz and a hum, as far as living next to them. Carol Hall: It’s absolutely horrible, and they have no say. That’s the problem is we’re not giving our communities a say in where these projects are placed. Mike Hydeck: So Governor Lamont went and toured one of these sites this week. Obviously, you’re Republican. He’s a Democrat. He said to us on camera, hey, I think we’re kind of out of balance here. Were you heartened by that? What was your take when you heard him say that Carol Hall: I was. I was really happy to get him there. I had sent a letter to his office weeks ago and asked him, please just come in person see what we’re dealing with up here. Because looking at paper, it doesn’t, you just don’t get the real perspective. He came. He took a tour, which we were really happy to have him do. And I think he saw for himself, yeah, there’s a problem here. We’ve got to be a little bit more equitable where these projects are placed. And we talk about it with affordable housing, right? Everybody’s got to do their fair share. Well, we’re feeling the same way with these solar arrays. Mike Hydeck: If 30% of the ones in the state are all in your area, that’s not quite spread out. Carol Hall: It’s even worse than that, Mike. There’s another project that’s coming down the pike that’s slated to go in East Windsor and Ellington. So if this project is approved, we’ll have 45% to 50% of the solar arrays in this region. It’s so unfair. It really is. Mike Hydeck: One last question. I have less than 30 seconds. Do you feel confident that the siting council makeup will end up changing after this? Because you said legislation is underway to maybe add farmers and business leaders and families. Carol Hall: So local residents, wherever these projects are going to be heard will have an opportunity, one person to be on this. I think it’s got a pretty good shot of passing. There’s another bill that’s even more important to my area, which is HB 5551, which really reverts the control back to the local municipalities once you hit 100 megahertz in your town. Mike Hydeck: 5551. Carol Hall: 5551, people look at that one. Mike Hydeck: Representative, thank you so much for coming in. We appreciate your time. Carol Hall: Thank you.
The Japanese government has repeatedly emphasized the importance of perovskite solar — an unconventional, non-silicon based solar technology — in the country’s energy plans due to its potential benefits for emissions reduction, industrial strategy, and energy security. National energy plans have set ambitious targets for perovskite production and deployment, aiming for over 1 gigawatt (GW) of domestic production capacity by 2030 and 20GW by 2040. They also target a levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) of JPY10–14 per kilowatt-hour (kWh) by 2040. Leading Japanese perovskite manufacturers forecast the LCOE to be considerably higher than the government’s target, while far exceeding conventional residential and utility-scale solar photovoltaic (PV) costs. Moreover, perovskite cells face commercialization challenges, including a short durability of 5–12 years compared with 25-year lifetimes for conventional solar panels. The cost and performance disadvantages of perovskite solar cells are likely to prevail. The Japanese government should adopt a more nuanced strategy where silicon-based solar PV and other well-established clean energy technologies are prioritized over nascent-stage perovskites. In October 2025, Japanese Prime Minister Sanae Takaichi told parliament that perovskite solar panels, along with nuclear power, would be central to her administration’s approach to energy security and affordability. This emphasis on perovskites builds on the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry’s (METI) 2024 “Next Generation Solar Cell Strategy,” which positioned the unconventional solar cell technology as a priority in Japan’s renewable energy plans and set production and price targets for its deployment.
Japanese companies are aggressively developing and piloting this technology, while other countries — including China, Germany, and the United Kingdom— have also made recent advances in perovskite solar cell production.
But how realistic are the Japanese government’s perovskite targets? The technology remains in early development, and cost outlooks by leading Japanese firms suggest that perovskite solar cells will not be competitive with conventional, silicon-based solar photovoltaic (PV) by 2040. Taking this projection seriously would mean Japan’s perovskite strategy requires more nuance. Perovskites should be treated and promoted as a niche technology to be deployed where conventional solar PV cannot be installed, and as a supplemental technology that enhances the efficiency of conventional PV. Current state of perovskite solar cells and Japan’s strategy Perovskite solar cells are a non-silicon based PV technology that uses perovskite crystals, which are well-suited for absorbing light. There are currently three types of perovskites under development. The first is thin film, in which the perovskite layer is deposited onto thin substrates — often plastic or metal foil. The second is the glass type, where the perovskite cells are encapsulated in glass, making the design structurally stable and durable. Lastly, the tandem type combines perovskite cells with another PV technology, most commonly silicon.
Of the three, the thin film type has garnered the most attention, particularly in Japan. However, among the various solar energy technologies, these perovskite solar cells are still in their early stages. The International Energy Agency’s (IEA) ETP Clean Energy Technology Guide indicates that perovskites have reached the stages of large prototypes and full prototypes at scale, but remain far from maturity and market scalability.
The IEA notes that, depending on the type, experimental perovskites have achieved conversion efficiencies of between 25% and 34%, but so far only with small cell areas. A major barrier to commercialization is their limited durability. When exposed to moisture, oxygen, light, and heat, cell lifetimes can fall to between 5 and 12 years — much lower than the 25-year lifetimes assumed for conventional solar panels. Many companies piloting the technology still do not disclose stability analyses or cell lifetimes.
Despite this challenge, Japan’s strategy sets ambitious targets for perovskite production and deployment. By 2030, METI envisions a domestic production capacity of over 1 gigawatt (GW) of perovskite solar cells. Japan does not currently mass-produce perovskite cells, but has plans to commission new production lines later this decade. By 2040, it aims for installations totaling 20GW and an entirely self-sufficient supply chain. Equally important, METI also announced price targets, aiming for the levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) for perovskites to progressively decline from JPY20 per kilowatt-hour (kWh) to JPY14/kWh in 2030, and finally to between JPY10–14/kWh by 2040. METI reiterated these targets in its 7th Strategic Energy Plan in February 2025.
Although Japan’s 7th Strategic Energy Plan sets clear targets for perovskite deployment, it does not contain similarly precise goals for conventional solar technologies. Current estimates indicate that total solar capacity would need to rise to 200GW–250GW to meet the plan’s generation targets. This means that if Japan can achieve its perovskite installation target of 20GW by 2040, perovskites will account for up to 10% of the country’s solar generation capacity.
The Japanese government has been supporting the research and development of perovskites well before these targets were formalized. Between fiscal years 2022 and 2024, it spent JPY54.8 billion (approximately USD364.5 million) in subsidies for what it calls “next generation renewable energy,” which includes perovskites. Over the next decade, it plans to spend another JPY1 trillion (USD6.65 billion) to help catalyze JPY31 trillion (USD206 billion) in public-private investments. The benefits of perovskites are real Why are Japanese policymakers so committed to bringing perovskites to technological maturity and widespread deployment? The “Next Generation Solar Cell Strategy” highlights several advantages that perovskites could offer Japan’s energy system, industrial competitiveness, and emissions reduction.
First is the perceived limits in the future growth of conventional solar PV in the country. The introduction of feed-in tariffs in 2012 initially spurred rapid solar deployment, elevating Japan’s solar energy generation to the fourth-highest in the world. In recent years, however, solar deployment has slowed. As an Institute for Energy Economics and Financial Analysis (IEEFA) August 2025 report shows, this slowdown is due partly to grid infrastructure constraints, a prioritization of fossil and nuclear technologies, and wavering policy support for renewable energy.
Thin, lightweight, and highly versatile, perovskites hold the potential to circumvent these barriers because they can, in theory, be installed on building walls, windows, and many other urban surfaces. Urban installations also mean perovskites can be co-located with electricity demand centers. This can then ease the burden on Japan’s regional power grids, enhancing the resilience of the electric transmission and distribution system.
The Japanese government also highlights the advantages of perovskites from an industrial strategy and energy security standpoint. Once a leading solar panel manufacturer, Japan was surpassed by China as a global solar panel exporter from 2005 onward. With the still-nascent perovskite solar cell industry, Japan sees an opportunity to regain its competitiveness vis-à-vis China and other rivals. This is especially true because Japan is the second-largest producer of iodine — a key input in perovskite solar cells — lending credence to METI’s aim of establishing an entirely self-sufficient supply chain. The possibility of gaining a competitive advantage in a solar technology not yet dominated by any one country, therefore, holds a particular allure. But price targets are unrealistic While the touted benefits of perovskite solar cells are real, METI’s price targets seem less realistic. This is perhaps unsurprising given that policy priorities have tended to color METI’s cost assumptions.
In a press conference in January 2025, Japan’s leading perovskite maker Sekisui Chemical explained that it expects the LCOE of its film type perovskites to be around JPY20/kWh by 2030, compared to the government’s target of JPY14/kWh by the same year. This discrepancy between targets and projections is likely to persist. A few months after publishing its strategy document, METI compiled cost outlooks of the six perovskite solar cell manufacturers in Japan. According to the resulting projection, the LCOE from perovskites will be around JPY15.3/kWh by 2040 — considerably higher than the ministry’s target of between JPY10–14/kWh by 2040. More importantly, perovskites’ LCOE projection will remain far higher than conventional residential and utility-scale solar PV — JPY7.6–10.4/kWh and JPY6.6–8.4/kWh by 2040, respectively.
METI’s projection also suggests that perovskites will still fall short compared to conventional PV in terms of their durability. While commercial and residential solar PV is estimated to perform for 25 years, perovskites’ performance under ideal conditions is expected to only reach 20 years by 2040.
These are important differences that will impact the demand for perovskite solar cells. Today, Japanese construction companies and facility operators note that the higher cost and shorter durability of perovskites make them unattractive investments compared to conventional solar PV. While technological improvements and economies of scale will narrow these gaps in the medium and long term, it is wishful thinking to expect perovskite solar cells to become perfect substitutes for existing solar PV by 2040. A case for a more nuanced perovskite strategy Perovskite solar cells hold the promise of elevating Japan’s international competitiveness, resource and energy security, and emissions reduction. However, their cost and performance disadvantages are likely to prevail. This reality calls for a more nuanced strategy than the one the government is currently pursuing.
First and foremost, perovskites should be considered secondary to silicon-based solar PV and other well-established clean energy technologies. A new study led by Tohoku University, for example, has shown that rooftop solar panels, when combined with electric vehicles as batteries, could supply 85% of Japan’s electricity demand and reduce carbon dioxide emissions by 87%. Previousstudies, including those by Japan’s Ministry of Environment, have also shown that existing renewable energy technologies can meet an overwhelming majority of the country’s energy demand. The government should, therefore, prioritize subsidizing the production and adoption of these mature and cost-competitive clean energy technologies, while setting firm, ambitious targets for their deployment.
Second, film type perovskites should be understood as a niche technology designed to fill gaps that silicon-based solar panels cannot address. Incentives for their deployment should therefore target instances where silicon-based PV systems cannot be installed, rather than attempt to make perovskites directly competitive with proven, cost-effective solar technologies. These circumstances include roofs that cannot support the weight of silicon-based panels, building walls, and other infrastructure close to electricity demand centers.
Third, the government and manufacturing companies should emphasize tandem type perovskite solar cells as a way to enhance the performance of existing solar PV. Tandem type perovskites combine perovskite cells with another PV technology — most commonly silicon. Since the silicon and perovskite layers generate electricity using different parts of the solar spectrum, the tandem type greatly enhances power conversion efficiency.
At present, the Japanese government and companies are investing heavily in commercializing film type perovskite solar cells. Yet companies’ own projections suggest that these cells will not be competitive with conventional solar PV in cost and performance even by 2040. This highlights the need for a more realistic assessment and nuanced strategy for determining how perovskites should fit into Japan’s broader solar energy deployment plans.
Sam Reynolds, a Research Lead with the Institute for Energy Economics and Financial Analysis (IEEFA), focuses on the economic, financial, and climate risks associated with natural gas and liquefied natural gas (LNG) infrastructure developments in Asia.
Walter James is an Energy Finance Specialist at IEEFA with a particular focus on LNG, renewables and energy storage, and data centers in Japan.
Walter James is an Energy Finance Specialist at IEEFA with a particular focus on LNG, renewables and energy storage, and data centers in Japan.
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The solar ambulance Stella Juva emerges as an innovative response to the challenges of healthcare access. Consequently, it proposes an autonomous model based on clean energy. The development is the result of collaboration between AIKO and Solar Team Eindhoven. Additionally, it integrates energy generation within the vehicle itself. Unlike traditional systems, it does not rely on fossil fuels. Therefore, it can operate in environments without an electrical grid or stable logistics. In many isolated regions, medical care faces structural limitations. However, Stella Juva introduces a sustainable alternative. Thanks to its integrated solar panels, the vehicle generates real-time energy. Additionally, it powers both propulsion and medical equipment. As a result, dependency on external factors is reduced. In this way, it improves the response capacity in rural or disaster-affected areas. Moreover, this autonomy allows for extended operation times. Therefore, it expands the reach of healthcare assistance. The technological core of Stella Juva is based on All Back Contact solar cells. In this regard, they eliminate front contacts to capture more light. Additionally, this technology improves efficiency in reduced surfaces. Therefore, it is ideal for vehicles. Moreover, it presents less degradation over time. Consequently, it ensures sustained performance. On the other hand, it reduces the use of silver in its manufacturing. In this way, it decreases the environmental impact of the system. The Solar Team Eindhoven team had already developed prototypes like Stella Vita. However, this project aims at a concrete use. Unlike previous initiatives, Stella Juva focuses on healthcare. Therefore, it introduces a direct benefit to society. Additionally, it transforms mobility into energy infrastructure. Consequently, it redefines the role of emergency vehicles. Thus, a transition is consolidated from experimental innovation to real applications. In this way, it connects technology with urgent needs. The implementation of this type of vehicle offers multiple advantages. Firstly, it reduces emissions in healthcare transport. Additionally, it decreases operational costs by eliminating the use of fuels. Therefore, it is viable in systems with limited resources. Moreover, it improves the response to climatic emergencies. Consequently, it allows action even when infrastructures fail. On the other hand, it contributes to energy decentralization. In this way, energy is generated where it is needed. Finally, it facilitates access to basic services. Thus, it reduces the gap between urban and rural regions. Stella Juva is part of a global trend of distributed energies. Consequently, it promotes resilient solutions in the face of climate change. Additionally, its design allows for adaptations to other services. Therefore, it could extend to mobile clinics or support units. Moreover, it proposes a new paradigm in the use of renewable energies. In this way, it expands its application beyond static generation. Ultimately, this solar ambulance is not just a technical innovation. Thus, it represents a step towards more sustainable, accessible, and humane systems. Compartí esta nota
The Local Europe AB Västmannagatan 43 113 25 Stockholm Sweden What Americans in France need to know about filing two tax returns, English-speaking helplines, where all the doctors are in France, important information for anyone looking to install solar panels, and how to express condolences in French – here are our essential articles for life in France. Americans living in France must file two separate income tax returns each year — one for the US and one for France. As the US tax deadline approaches, here’s what experts recommend for those filing twice. Should you file your French tax return before your US one? Learning a new language is difficult and reaching out to a support line can feel intimidating — but a large number of services and companies in France do offer a helpline in English. LISTED: The English-speaking helplines in France The number of practising doctors in France is rising again after more than a decade of decline, but the rise in GP and specialist doctor numbers isn’t being felt equally across the country. MAP: More doctors in France — but massive medical deserts remain Perhaps you are looking to avoid rising energy prices or maybe you are interested in going green. Here are five things you need to know about installing solar panels in France. Five things to know if you want to install solar panels on your French home If you’re driving on French motorways you will be expected to pay a toll charge — unless you’re in Brittany. Here’s why. Why is Brittany the only place in France that doesn’t have motorway tolls? Finding the words to express condolences to someone who has just suffered a loss can be difficult in any language. Here’s how to do so in French. ‘Je suis de tout coeur avec vous’: How to express condolences in French Please sign up or log in to continue reading Join the conversation in our comments section below. Share your own views and experience and if you have a question or suggestion for our journalists then email us at news@thelocal.fr. Please keep comments civil, constructive and on topic – and make sure to read our terms of use before getting involved. Please log in here to leave a comment. The Local Europe AB Västmannagatan 43 113 25 Stockholm Sweden By signing up you agree to our Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. We will use your email address to send you newsletters as well as information and offers related to your account. 2026 The Local, All Rights Reserved.
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Take Advantage of CR’s Bill Negotiator Stop overpaying on your monthly expenses. Choosing the right ones will ensure that they produce plenty of electricity, even in extreme heat or on cloudy days When you shop through retailer links on our site, we may earn affiliate commissions. 100% of the fees we collect are used to support our nonprofit mission. Learn more. If you stop to think about it, it’s a marvel that we can harness energy from the sun. But we do, thanks to solar panels equipped with photovoltaic cells that convert sunlight to electricity. That’s no small feat, and the number of people powering their lives with solar isn’t so small, either. Some 5 million households in the U.S. now have solar panels, according to the Solar Energy Industries Association. If you’re looking to go solar, choosing a skilled installer with experience in your locale is crucial to the project’s success. That’s because the process for installing solar varies from state to state and even city to city. Consumer Reports has guidance on how to vet installers and compare proposals. The quality of the equipment is just as essential. Not all panels perform at the same level. And while an installer will guide you through the process, they may not necessarily have the independent data on which panels offer peak performance. That’s why Consumer Reports partnered with an outside lab to test 10 popular solar panels. Plus, many of the leading companies making solar panels are ones most consumers have never heard of, says Tristan Erion-Lorico, vice president of sales and marketing at Kiwa PVEL, the lab that Consumer Reports partnered with for testing. “These are big investments from companies that aren’t household names,” he says. So understanding how well panels function based on data from unbiased tests offers a little more confidence in a process that can be daunting. Consumer Reports tested 10 models of solar panels, looking to see which models delivered the power as promised and still managed to generate energy in high-temperature and low-light conditions. These three rose to the top. The lifespan of a well-made solar panel, also known as a photovoltaic module, is about 30 years and potentially longer, according to the Department of Energy. You want your solar array to be making energy as efficiently as possible for that entire time. Some panels perform better than others because of how they are made, says Erion-Lorico. “You can use a lot of materials and manufacturing processes to make a solar cell and a solar panel, and not all of those materials perform the same,” he says. “You can use different encapsulants, which are the glue that holds the panel together. Some of those encapsulants have higher transparency than others, allowing more light to reach the cell. Cell designs can be quite different.” One way to discern a solar panel’s long-term effectiveness is with its “degradation rate,” which can often be found in the manufacturer’s power warranty information (or ask your installer). All solar panels are expected to dip in effectiveness over time. But the lower the degradation rate, the better, because your solar array will be working as close to maximum capacity as possible throughout its lifespan. For instance, the Jinko Solar panel we tested has a first-year degradation rate of 1 percent, according to the manufacturer. Each subsequent year, the degradation rate drops to 0.4 percent or less. That means that after 30 years, the panel should be creating energy at a level that’s 87.4 percent of its first-year output, or greater. That’s at least 367 watts per panel after 30 years, assuming the panel starts out producing 420 watts. Of course, extreme weather can affect any panel’s degradation rate. Kiwa PVEL also produces a scorecard with data on long-term reliability. There are a lot of reasons to go solar if you can. For one, it’s an abundant source of clean energy. Investing in solar can reduce or stabilize your energy bill—we’ve heard from people who have brought those bills down to zero—which is important at a time when the cost of electricity has surged. Over the past year, electricity prices have increased at a rate higher than inflation. Installing solar panels on your roof can also increase the value of your home, and there are financial incentives to take advantage of. While the federal solar tax credit ended in 2025, you may also be able to tap into state and local incentives for solar projects. Those financial incentives can be a huge help, because the up-front cost of installing solar panels is substantial. You might spend about $30,000 to install a typical system, according to EnergySage, an alternative energy marketplace. It says the average homeowner could break even on the investment in close to 11 years. Installing solar panels may not be worth it if you don’t intend to live in your home for years to come or if you need to replace or do substantial work on your roof before getting panels. You also want to make sure you have a good sense of your energy use so that you get a solar array that covers your needs. Otherwise, you may be disappointed. We tested three samples of each of the 10 models. To evaluate a panel’s electrical capacity, measured in watts per square meter, we placed the solar panels in a sun simulator, a dark chamber where the solar panel is exposed to a flash of light that mimics natural sunlight. One of these flash tests replicated the conditions of a bright, sunny day, while a second test simulated the lower light of a cloudy day. These light tests helped us determine whether the panels delivered the power as claimed and how efficiently they generated energy in less-than-ideal conditions. We then tested the performance of the solar modules in high temperatures because panel performance drops in hotter conditions. The initial light tests to measure electrical output were conducted at a standard test temperature of 25° C (77° F). We raised the temperature to 50° C, and then again to 75° C (122° F and 167° F, respectively) because roof temperatures can be significantly hotter than the ambient temperature. We evaluated the power output as the panel warmed up. Because panels can have manufacturing defects or suffer damage during the shipping process, technicians also checked each panel for flaws using three types of inspections, and then determined whether the problems were acceptable, minor, or severe. The first inspection was a visual analysis to check for things such as cracks or misaligned cells. Technicians then took an electroluminescence image of the panel—essentially an X-ray—to look for any hidden defects. Finally, they conducted a “wet leakage test” to make sure the electrical wiring in the panel was properly insulated for times when it gets wet. Solar panels go through multiple tests in the lab, including a flash test in a sun simulator, a wet leakage test to ensure electrical wiring is properly protected, and a visual check for defects. Yasmeen Khan Yasmeen Khan is a multimedia content creator at Consumer Reports. She covers topics related to home systems and tools, like lawn mowers and generators. Before joining CR, Yasmeen was a longtime news reporter for WNYC in New York City. She has also worked as a story editor and host of podcasts. We respect your privacy. All email addresses you provide will be used just for sending this story.
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Luke Bell and his father Mike have done it again. Their new solar-powered drone – running on sunlight and almost nothing else – just claimed an unofficial endurance record for electric multirotors, flying for 5 hours, 2 minutes, and 21 seconds before Luke simply got tired and landed it. The Bells are best known for wringing absurd speed out of racing drones. Their Peregreen series has shattered and reclaimed the Guinness World Record for battery-powered RC (radio-controlled) drone speed multiple times – 247 mph on the first run in 2023, 300 mph (483 km/h) the following year, 363 mph (584 km/h) with the Peregreen 3 in Dubai, and 408 mph (657.59 km/h) with the Peregreen 4 in January 2026. Though that last record still officially stands, aerospace engineer Benjamin Biggs has bested it with his BlackBird drone, so the race is still very much on. Luke Bell also holds the unofficial hover endurance record for a multirotor at 3 hours, 31 minutes, and 6 seconds, set with a purpose-built hyper-efficient drone running 101-cm (40-in) propellers and high-density semi-solid NMC (nickel-manganese-cobalt) lithium batteries. But the Bells’ solar drone is a different beast entirely. “A solar-powered drone that could fly for up to 12 hours in a day opens up a lot of possibilities,” Luke told me via email. “It can take off and land anywhere and also never needs recharging. It could also fly for 100s of km per day. Compare this to what is currently on the market. Drone use is heavily limited by battery anxiety, but without a battery the use cases really open up. Specifically for things like agriculture, mining, surveillance, mapping, etc.” The team’s first version had no batteries, no capacitors – it ran entirely on whatever the sun provided in real time. Built on an X-frame carbon fiber chassis with lightweight motors and 18 in (46 cm) propellers, it pulled power from 27 solar panels wired in series, producing around 150 watts on the ground. The concept worked, barely, until a wind gust ended the flight after three minutes. For the second iteration, the Bells reworked the frame arms to reduce rotational inertia and trimmed roughly 70 g (2.5 oz) from the build, the equivalent to about 4 watts of saved power demand. They also switched to TPU (thermoplastic polyurethane – think flexible, 3D-printable rubber) sleeves over the carbon tubes to hold the panels in place more reliably. But the real breakthrough came when they added a backup circuit using diodes and an auxiliary battery. Diodes act as one-way valves, blocking current from flowing back into the panels. When a cloud or wind gust pushes power demand above what the solar array can deliver, the battery bridges the gap automatically. The final design runs 28 solar panels, arrayed across a carbon fiber frame. Under full sun, the array produces over 110 watts on the ground, comfortably above the roughly 70 watts the drone needs to hover. The surplus charges the auxiliary battery, ready to deploy whenever the sky doesn’t cooperate. “Wind is always a major issue with such a low wing-loading device,” says Luke. “V3 will have a big focus on increasing wind resistance. How that will be done, I am still not sure. It’s always a fine balance because it needs to be as light as possible.” Keeping a multirotor airborne indefinitely is a far harder problem than doing the same with a fixed-wing aircraft. The Airbus Zephyr S holds the absolute endurance record at 64 consecutive days aloft; BAE Systems’ PHASA-35 reached 24 days. But even those industrial platforms plan missions of 200-300 days – not open-ended flights – because battery degradation, mechanical wear, and long winter nights all put a ceiling on how long any drone can stay up. “I think indefinite flight is in theory possible,” Luke says. “A simple way to try and achieve this would be to turn it into an eVTOL [electric vertical take-off and landing]. The panel will become a wing and reduce power to stay in the air to as low as 10% of hover power. This would mean the drone could fly on a small battery for a long time until the sun comes up again. Solar panel efficiency is also low at the moment, about 20-25% for the ones I use. If we can get that number higher, then the possibilities really explode for this kind of tech.” While we wait for the next version to fly, follow the build journey for the current build in the video below. Source: Luke Bell
Read counter = 2066 times Renewable energy solutions are vital for sustainable development, particularly in Small Island Developing States (SIDS) facing challenges related to fossil fuel dependence. This study examines the design, installation, and performance evaluation of an off-grid solar photovoltaic (PV) system. The system is located in a remote, forested region of Trinidad, providing electricity for wildlife rehabilitation efforts in a facility lacking conventional grid access. The research analyzes empirical data on system performance under humid tropical conditions, addressing practical challenges and highlighting the importance of accurate solar resource assessments for such environments. Financial analysis includes a detailed cost breakdown and calculation of the levelized cost of electricity (LCOE), providing insights into the economic feasibility of off-grid solar solutions. Results indicate significant discrepancies between simulated and actual performance, underscoring factors such as lower-than-anticipated solar irradiance and the impact of a constant nighttime energy load on battery cycling. Recommendations are provided to optimize future off-grid PV installations for similar applications in Trinidad and Tobago and the broader CARICOM region. The global context of renewable energy adoption highlights the challenges faced by Small Island Developing States (SIDS) in meeting their energy needs sustainably. Research indicates that SIDS heavily relies on imported fossil fuels, impacting the environment, budgets, and energy security [1]. To address these challenges, the adoption of solar photovoltaic (PV) systems is crucial. Studies emphasize that residential PV systems play a significant role in the sustainable energy transition, with a focus on enhancing the perception of benefits to drive adoption [2]. Furthermore, the role of solar PV systems in advancing energy independence and environmental sustainability in SIDS is underscored. Policies such as carbon taxes and renewable portfolio standards are identified as effective tools for reducing carbon emissions and increasing energy independence in small island states like Jamaica [3]. Trinidad and Tobago’s energy landscape showcases a blend of traditional hydrocarbon resources and a growing commitment to renewable energy. The nation aims to reduce emissions by 28.7 MtCO2-e by 2030, with initiatives like introducing zero-carbon renewable energy sources and exploring Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) technologies [4]. Additionally, there is a focus on off-grid renewable electricity development supported by legal frameworks [5]. A pre-feasibility study highlights the country’s potential for a green hydrogen market, leveraging existing infrastructure and capabilities for sustainable energy production [6]. Efforts towards sustainable energy transition include improving energy efficiency, transitioning to combined-cycle operations, and increasing renewable energy penetration to reduce CO2 emissions significantly [7]. Trinidad and Tobago’s energy landscape reflects a dynamic shift towards cleaner and more efficient energy practices within the CARICOM framework. Off-grid solar PV systems play a crucial role in providing electricity to remote and rural areas where grid access is limited or non-existent. These systems are essential for electrifying regions far from traditional power sources [8]. They offer a sustainable solution to meet energy demands, especially in low-population areas or rugged terrains, reducing reliance on fossil fuels and mitigating environmental impacts. The optimization of PV systems, including battery storage and efficient design, is vital for ensuring reliable energy supply in off-grid locations. By utilizing renewable energy sources like solar power, these systems not only enhance energy access but also contribute to reducing carbon emissions, making them a cost-effective and environmentally friendly solution for remote electrification [9]. The primary objective of this study was to design, install, and evaluate the performance of an off-grid solar photovoltaic (PV) system tailored for a conservation facility dedicated to the care of wildlife impacted by environmental pollutants in Trinidad’s dense forest regions. Recognizing the critical need for reliable power sources in remote locations that are bereft of conventional grid electricity, this research aimed to provide a sustainable and environmentally friendly power solution while addressing the unique challenges posed by the local ecosystem. This study offers empirical data and insights into the operational efficiencies and challenges of solar PV systems in humid tropical climates. This data is invaluable for researchers, engineers, and policymakers aiming to optimize solar energy solutions in similar climatic conditions, not just within Trinidad and Tobago but across the wider CARICOM region, where such climates are prevalent. Financial viability is a critical component of sustainable energy solutions, and this study’s detailed cost analysis sheds light on the economic aspects of off-grid solar PV systems. By providing an evaluation of the levelized cost of electricity, this research contributes to a more nuanced understanding of the economic considerations necessary for the adoption of solar PV systems in remote locations. The roof-mounted solar PV system is located in a heavily forested area east of Trinidad. The climate in Trinidad is characterized by a humid tropical environment with significant rainfall and consistent temperatures throughout the year [10]. The solar PV system will power equipment and fixtures in an existing structure that is used for the care and rehabilitation of local reptiles and birds, in particular reptiles and birds that are affected by onshore and offshore oil and other chemical spills. The site is remote and not connected to the electrical grid. Diesel-powered generators met the site’s electricity needs. A site visit was conducted, and the slope and orientation of the roof were measured. The tilt and azimuth of the roof were measured as 200 and 0, respectively. The electrical load was calculated by recording the power consumption of the electrical appliances and their usage patterns. The average daily consumption was calculated as 10.1 kWh/day, and the daily average electrical consumption pattern is provided in Fig. 1. The site was unaffected by shading at the time of the site visit. Fig. 1.Daily variation in electrical load. Using information from the site visit and the National Solar Radiation Database (NSRDB), which provided solar irradiance data for the site, the off-grid roof-top solar PV system was designed using the industry-leading software PVsyst. The solar PV design was then used to inform a request for proposals, which resulted in the purchase of solar PV equipment and the contracting of a solar contractor to install the system. The system was installed to meet National Electric Code (NEC) 2020 standards. The performance data for the solar PV system was logged by the energy management component of the system for every 5-minute interval from September 2023 to March 2024. This data was used in the analysis that follows. The results of the solar PV design and simulation are provided in this section, along with the data logged during the 6 months of operation of the system. The design performance is then compared against the real-life performance of the system. The main components of the system and their rating are provided in Table I. The single-line diagram of the system is provided in Fig. 2. The system meets NEC 2020 requirements. Fig. 2.Single line diagram for the solar PV system. A summary of the simulation results is presented in Table II and the simulated monthly energy production and losses in Fig. 3. Fig. 3.Simulated results for energy production and losses per month. This section focuses on the presentation and analysis of actual performance data taken from the data logging and energy management system of the solar PV system. Fig. 4 presents that daily variation of solar irradiance data over the data collection period. It should be noted that during the reporting period, 1000 W/m2 irradiance levels were never attained. Fig. 5 presents the Cumulative Frequency Distribution (CFD) curve and the calculated median solar irradiance value of 423 W/m2. The histogram in Fig. 6 illustrates that the highest frequency of solar irradiation observations falls within the 100 to 500 W/m2 range, suggesting that these are the most common irradiance levels during daylight hours. Fig. 4.Daily variation in solar irradiance (W/m2). Fig. 5.Cumulative frequency distribution of solar irradiance data. Fig. 6.Histogram of solar irradiance. The average daily yield (kWh) value from October and November 2023 is presented in Fig. 7. The mean value is approximately 11.86 kWh. This is 49% of the simulated average daily yield value of 24.15 kWh. The daily variation in solar PV power is presented in Fig. 8. During the reporting period, the system rarely reaches or exceeds its installed capacity of 5.34 kW. Fig. 8 also illustrates that PV production peaks between 9 am and 10 am regularly. Fig. 7.Daily solar energy yield. Fig. 8.Daily variation in solar PV production. The daily variation in electrical demand is presented in Fig. 9, and the corresponding electrical demand histogram in Fig. 10. Fig. 9 illustrates that the electrical demand is fairly consistent throughout the reporting period, and the histogram in Fig. 10 highlights that the highest bin covers the range from 219.8 W to 303.6 W, indicating this is the most frequently observed range of AC power consumption. The second highest bin covers the range from 136.0 W to 219.8 W, showing this as the next most common range of consumption. Fig. 9.Daily variation in power consumption. Fig. 10.Histogram showing daily variation in electricity consumption. The daily charging and discharging of the battery bank are presented in Fig. 11. The battery bank charging pattern does follow the solar PV power production pattern. The discharging of the battery bank, especially at night when there is no solar, matches the electrical load demand profile presented in Fig. 9. The battery bank histogram presented in Fig. 12 shows that the highest bin covers the range from approximately −423.2 W to −220.3 W, and the second highest bin covers the range from approximately −626.2 W to −423.2 W. This exceeds the range provided for the electrical power demand in Fig. 10. Fig. 11.Daily variation in battery power. Fig. 12.Histogram of daily variation in battery power. The interplay between solar PV power production, battery charging, and discharging, and electrical load consumption is presented in Fig. 13. Fig. 13.Daily variation in solar PV power, battery bank power, and load power consumption. Lead carbon batteries specifically for solar PV energy storage were used. Fig. 14 presents the variation in battery voltage for a typical day. Battery voltage is a direct indication of the state-of-charge of the battery bank. The red dashed line in Fig. 14 represents the battery voltage when fully discharged, and the higher two dashed lines represent the voltage range when the battery bank enters the float stage. The battery bank reaches close to fully discharged at around 6 am and spends a short time in the float stage before it is discharged again. Fig. 14.Battery voltage variation for a typical day. The percentage of power loss during charging and discharging of the batteries is presented in Figs. 15 and 16, respectively. Both figures illustrate that at low load power consumption, there are instances of high losses, exceeding 50%. However, the charging power losses at low load power consumption are regularly less than 20%, and for discharging, it is also regularly less than 20%. Fig. 15.Losses during the charging of the batteries. Fig. 16.Losses during the discharging of the batteries. The breakdown of the equipment cost of the solar PV system is provided in Fig. 17. The equipment was provided by a separate vendor and not the solar installer for this project. The cost of the battery bank is the most significant cost, consuming 37% of the total equipment cost. Fig. 17.Breakdown in equipment cost ($USD). Fig. 18 shows the installation labour cost to be greater than the installation equipment cost. The installation equipment cost, in this case, is the electrical equipment and materials required to interconnect the solar PV system with the existing electrical infrastructure of the existing building. The total installation cost exceeds the total equipment cost for this project. The total equipment cost refers to the cost of the major solar PV components and the balance of the system required to interconnect the system. The total equipment cost does not include the cost of equipment that interconnects the solar PV system with the existing electrical system. This breakdown in cost is presented in Fig. 19. Fig. 18.Breakdown of installation cost. Fig. 19.Equipment cost compared to the installation of the equipment cost. The parameters used to calculate the Levelized Cost of Electricity (LCOE) using the real-life energy production data and cost are provided in Table III. The LCOE for your solar installation, before adjusting for the discount rate, is approximately $0.588/kWh. After adjusting for the discount rate on the operation and maintenance (O&M) costs over the system’s lifetime, the LCOE is approximately $0.567/kWh. The off-grid site used a small diesel generator for electrical power prior to the installation of the solar PV system. A small diesel generator, rated at 2 kW that meets the current load requirements of the facility has an emissions factor of 1.22 kg CO2e/kWh [11]. For a year, the solar PV system would have avoided approximately 3,433.7 kg CO2e of emissions. The avoided emissions associated with the small diesel generator are much higher than the emissions associated with electricity produced from the local grid, which is almost completely natural gas based. The avoided emissions from the solar system, had the electricity grid been connected to the site, would be 1,404.4 kg CO2e per year. This is, of course, impractical because of the remote location of the site and the high cost of the installation of the electricity distribution system. The rated peak power output of solar PV modules is given at standard testing conditions (STC). The STC conditions are an irradiance of 1000 W/m2 (watts per square meter), a solar PV cell temperature of 25 °C, and an air mass (AM) of 1.5. The STC conditions do not reflect the nominal temperature and irradiance conditions at the site. For the data collection period, an irradiance of 1000 W/m2 was not observed, and the average annual temperature in Trinidad and Tobago is between 26.4 °C and 26.9 °C [12]. It is no surprise that solar PV installation rarely produces its simulated rated power output and its daily energy yield. The solar PV design software PVsyst does use ambient temperature and irradiance in its calculations, but these values are based on historical metrological data that have been reanalyzed. This site is around 30 km from the metrological site at the international airport, in a valley location, and in a dense tropical rainforest. These site-specific details were not accounted for in the temperature and irradiance variations. The energy production directly affects the LCOE, with the actual LCOE being more than two times higher than the LCOE derived from simulation results. The LCOE for both the simulated and actual are both high when compared to the average domestic rate for electricity locally. The simulated LCOE is 3.8 times the local electricity rate, and the actual LCOE is 11.8 times the local electricity rate. This high cost is because the local electricity rate is subsidized by a lower than market price for natural gas, and the PV system, being totally off-grid, has a battery system that is 37% of the equipment cost. A summary of the actual and simulated performance parameters is provided in Table IV. The electricity load of the system is fairly constant, however, there are numerous occasions when there is a sharp spike in electrical demand, as seen in Fig. 9. This sharp spike is due to the use of a water pump, a small air dryer, and an electric heater. The system was not designed to accommodate the surge current required for the operation of a water pump. The water pump was connected by the site user after the installation. The constant load extends throughout the night; this represents a nightly current draw and cycling of the batteries. Fig. 14 expounds on the issue of the constant load draw on the batteries at night. At around 6 am, the batteries are close to depleted and rely on a sunny day or a day with a high average solar irradiance to recharge. If this is not the case, the batteries can be completely depleted during the next night if the electrical load is not decreased. This did not happen during the data collection period. The system was designed with one day of autonomy. However, the lower solar energy output and the extended energy usage at night decreased the buffer provided by the day of autonomy. The system has a 5 kW inverter installed but rarely operates at this rated power and operates mostly at 1.5 kW output. An inverter typically has lower efficiency when operating at a lower output power. This is illustrated in Fig. 16, where there are mainly losses of around 20% when operating at a power output of 1.5 kW and less. The cost to install the system exceeded the total cost of the equipment and the cost of the labour component of the installation exceeded the cost of the equipment, and materials to perform the installation. This is illustrated in Figs. 18 and 19. The cost is directly reflective of the remote nature of the site and the unavailability of an electrical connection during the installation of the solar system. After analyzing the system’s performance, the following recommendations are being made: It is uncommon to perform a solar resource assessment for small domestic and light commercial installations; however, for off-grid, remote systems, a one-to three-month long logging of solar irradiance data using a low cost digital pyranometer can greatly benefit the technical design and financial analysis of the solar PV system. The high labor cost for this project, mainly caused by the remote and off-grid nature of the site, would decrease in the short and medium term as the local solar PV market grows, and the global decline in energy storage costs would also benefit off-grid sites [13]. Conflict of Interest: The authors declare that they do not have any conflict of interest. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License. European Journal of Energy Research (EJ-ENERGY) is a peer-reviewed international journal that publishes bimonthly full-length research papers, reviews, and case studies aligned with the journal’s areas of interest.
The US solar industry may fall short of workforce needs as developers race to meet July 4, 2026 construction deadlines tied to federal tax credits. Image: Brown University From pv magazine USA The US solar industry faces a critical shortage of skilled labor as developers rush to meet the July 4, 2026, construction deadline mandated by the One Big Beautiful Bill Act (OBBBA). Analysis from the 2025 US Energy & Employment Report (USEER) and the IREC National Solar Jobs Census reveals that while the industry now supports over 280,000 workers, the supply of qualified personnel is failing to keep pace with accelerated project timelines. Projections suggest the industry requires approximately 355,000 workers by late 2026 to support installation targets of 60 GW to 70 GW, leaving a projected near-term gap of 53,000 positions. Hiring difficulty remains a systemic challenge, with 86% of solar employers reporting some level of difficulty filling open positions according to the 2025 USEER. This issue is most acute in the utility-scale sector, where 27% of firms describe hiring for installation and project development roles as very difficult. The talent gap is particularly pronounced for mid-level technical roles and management positions, with 47% of firms reporting significant hurdles in hiring directors and supervisors. The shortages are primarily driven by a lack of candidates with specialized industry experience, technical training, or specific certifications required for increasingly complex high-voltage and AI-integrated systems, said USEER. The 2026 apprenticeship mandate adds a layer of regulatory pressure to existing labor shortages. Under current federal guidelines, projects must ensure that 15% of total labor hours are performed by qualified apprentices to secure the full value of the Section 45Y and 48E tax credits. However, the Interstate Renewable Energy Council Census indicates that only 43% of the US workforce currently has access to the skills training necessary for these roles. This disparity is forcing a shift in how the industry approaches workforce development, as Tier-1 developers move away from third-party labor providers to build internal training pipelines. To bridge the gap, the sector is increasingly focused on attracting veteran candidates and workers from transitioning fossil fuel industries. Efforts are complemented by the deployment of digital documentation tools and automated site-tracking software, which allow smaller teams of expert journey-level workers to oversee larger groups of semi-skilled laborers. In 2026, the ability to secure a compliant, documented workforce has become a determining factor in project bankability, along with interconnection and supply chain stability as leading development risks. This content is protected by copyright and may not be reused. If you want to cooperate with us and would like to reuse some of our content, please contact: editors@pv-magazine.com. More articles from Ryan Kennedy Please be mindful of our community standards. Your email address will not be published.Required fields are marked *
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An editorially independent publication supported by the Simons Foundation. Get the latest news delivered to your inbox. Create a reading list by clicking the Read Later icon next to the articles you wish to save. Type search term(s) and press enter Popular Searches March 2, 2026 Presolar grains, found in meteorites, are smaller than a bacterial cell. Photos courtesy of Nan Liu Contributing Writer March 2, 2026 The standard story of the origin of our solar system has gone like this: 4.6 billion years ago, a giant cloud of dust hung frozen in space. Then the explosion of a nearby star caused part of that dust cloud to collapse. Pulled by gravity toward a central point, the dust coalesced into a radiating ball of hydrogen and helium about 1.4 million kilometers in diameter — what would become our sun. The remainder, which fell into orbit, collected into our solar system’s planets, along with a mess of asteroids and other cosmic leftovers. To test the validity of this story, researchers need to peer back in time to the solar system’s first moments and beyond. And the cosmochemist Nan Liu has a way to do that: Locked in a safe on her desk at Boston University’s Institute for Astrophysical Research is a shard of meteorite flecked with material older than the sun. “It’s the most pristine [type of] meteorite, not altered by water or heat,” Liu said as she took out and held up the specimen — a shiny, dark stone about the size and shape of an arrowhead. Meteorites like this one formed around the time of the dust cloud collapse. The collapse of the cloud and the ignition of the sun melted away much of the chemical information contained in the meteorite, but within it some microscopic crystals — smaller than a single bacterial cell — survived intact. These crystals, called presolar grains, are far and away the oldest material accessible to us on Earth. Get Quanta Magazine delivered to your inbox Nan Liu, a cosmochemist at Boston University’s Institute for Astrophysical Research, holds up a piece of meteorite that contains grains of material older than the sun. James Dinneen for Quanta Magazine Over the past decade or so, scientists have used meteorites like Liu’s to challenge the story of how the solar system formed. Instead of a supernova, the solar system and everything in it might owe its existence to a more placid-sounding cosmic scenario: Maybe our solar system cobbled itself together from the winds blown off of a gargantuan star. New studies of presolar grains could offer a way to determine whether this new story is correct. Scientists got their first clue about what could have triggered the formation of the solar system when a fireball appeared over Mexico in 1969. The now-famous Allende meteorite spread its debris over more than 500 square kilometers. In 1976, researchers reported that samples from Allende contained a surprise: an unexpectedly large amount of a stable isotope called magnesium-26. They proposed that the meteorite formed with an abundance of aluminum-26, which is radioactive and leaves behind magnesium-26 when it decays. Yet aluminum-26 was not known to be a normal component of the interstellar medium — the dusty space between stars that would have provided the materials for Allende. Ordinary stars don’t make that particular isotope. “Most of these isotopes as we observe them in the early solar system, they were just the natural product of galactic chemical evolution,” said Maria Lugaro, an astrophysicist at the Konkoly Thege Miklós Astronomical Institute in Hungary. “The most important exception is aluminum-26.” Pieces of the Allende meteorite landed across the Mexican state of Chihuahua. Matteo Chinellato So where’d it come from? In 1977, two eminent astrophysicists proposed that the anomalous aluminum likely came from a nearby supernova explosion. Other phenomena can produce aluminum-26, but the supernova shock wave could also have caused the collapse of the cloud. With a single event, astronomers could explain how two rare occurrences — the injection of aluminum-26 and the formation of a new solar system — happened at virtually the same moment. “Everybody felt that we needed something to trigger the collapse,” said Vikram Dwarkadas, an astronomer at the University of Chicago. The supernova trigger remained the favored scenario for decades, supported by detailed astrophysical models, as well as further measurements of enriched magnesium-26 in pristine meteorites. But over the past decade or so, that view has run up against other measurements that don’t seem to match. The problem: The solar system has an iron deficiency. Supernovas don’t just make aluminum. Any nearby supernova would likely also have injected lots of the radioactive isotope iron-60. Therefore, if a supernova launched the formation of the solar system, “we should see quite high initial [iron-60] abundances in the early-formed objects,” wrote Linru Fang, a cosmochemist at the University of Copenhagen, in an email. Some studies have reported finding enough iron-60 in meteorite samples to support the supernova story. But not all scientists agree with those findings; several researchers told Quanta that most cosmochemists now think that, while there was an abundance of aluminum-26 at the start of the solar system, there wasn’t much iron-60 after all. Early last year — in a study described by its authors as the most precise measure of iron-60 in the early solar system to date — Fang and her colleagues reported low levels of iron-60 (measured via its stable decay product nickel-60) in a planetesimal formed just after the collapse of the cloud. The result is inconsistent with a supernova scenario, she said. The Vela Supernova Remnant formed after the explosion of a star in a supernova. Alan Dyer/Stocktrek Images/Science Source Researchers have come up with explanations for the missing iron. “Meteoricists are famously argumentative folks,” wrote Alan Boss, an astronomer at Carnegie Science in Washington, D.C., in an email. “There always seems to be a counterexample to anything someone claims to be the case.” For instance, the aluminum could have exploded out of the supernova, while the iron — coming from deeper in the star’s core — could have fallen back into the dead star. Or the explosion could have come from a quirky supernova that didn’t generate iron-60 at all. It could also be that iron-60 wasn’t distributed evenly in the cloud, which could mean measurements from individual meteorites aren’t giving us the full picture. Dwarkadas dismisses these explanations as “hand-waving” attempts to fine-tune the models to match the data rather than finding a more general solution. “Many people seem to accept the idea that it’s not a supernova,” he said. But if the solar system didn’t start with a supernova, where did it get all that aluminum? A possibility many researchers now favor is that the aluminum-26 was delivered on the winds of a Wolf-Rayet star. Compared to our sun, a Wolf-Rayet star is much shorter-lived, dozens of times larger, and thousands of times as luminous. A star becomes a Wolf-Rayet star when its outer hydrogen shell is stripped away, either by the gravitational attraction of another star or by the strength of its own solar winds. A Wolf-Rayet star’s exposed core can send out solar winds at speeds of up to 3,000 kilometers a second. “It basically sweeps up the surrounding material like a snowplow,” Dwarkadas said. That swept-up material forms a shell around the star that can be 100 light-years across. The shell, which creates a bubble around the Wolf-Rayet star, is tens of thousands of times denser than the surrounding interstellar medium. The Dolphin Head Nebula is a Wolf-Rayet star surrounded by a bubble an estimated 60 light-years across. Image processed by Sauro Gaudenzi, original data from Telescope Live. The shell contains enough material to build a solar system. It should contain a lot of aluminum-26, and — crucially — it should contain very little iron-60. “I’m looking for a star that produces only aluminum-26,” Lugaro said. “The place where we can make only aluminum-26 is in the winds of these very massive stars.” Astronomers have observed suns forming within the shells of Wolf-Rayet stars, Dwarkadas said. By his estimate, as much as 16% of all sun-size stars in our galaxy could have formed this way. “If it’s true, there’s no reason it should be true only for our solar system,” he said. “Ours will not be unique.” Dwarkadas and his colleagues have laid out perhaps the most complete model for how the solar winds of a Wolf-Rayet star could have blasted aluminum-26 into our solar system as it formed. Afterward, the Wolf-Rayet star, with a lifetime of only a few million years, would most likely have collapsed into a black hole, although evidence for this would be long gone, Dwarkadas said. There are problems with the Wolf-Rayet idea, Lugaro said. For instance, a Wolf-Rayet star creates such an energetic environment that it should have torn our newly formed solar system apart. Boss still favors the theory that our cloud of dust was ignited by a supernova. Lugaro does not. “At the moment, from the nuclear-physics point of view,” she said, “I favor the winds of the Wolf-Rayet stars.” However, she said, new information could change her mind next week. “This is a problem that needs to be looked at from different angles. We are still fighting a bit about this.” In Boston, Liu put the meteorite back in its safe. On her computer, she opened a live view through the microscope of a nanoprobe that can measure the chemical composition of tiny pieces of material. She and other researchers are using the device to study bits of meteorite dissolved in acid, on the hunt for grains with the right chemical composition to have come from a Wolf-Rayet star. Liu operated the nanoprobe remotely (it was in Washington, D.C.), slowly scrutinizing the meteorite bits scattered across a field of gold foil. “This is like a fishing expedition,” Liu said. Her next step, assuming she can find a good number of grains with the right chemical composition to have come from a Wolf-Rayet star, would be to measure whether they show signs of having been enriched in aluminum-26. This chemical information could then be used to constrain astrophysical models of the Wolf-Rayet scenario for the start of the solar system. Liu acknowledged that the presence of such grains wouldn’t be a slam dunk for the Wolf-Rayet star theory; for instance, aluminum-enriched dust could have been produced by much older stars long before our solar system formed. But the absence of such grains would suggest that the Wolf-Rayet idea is off. She watched the nanoprobe at work, delving billions of years into the past. Studying these grains, Liu said, gives her a new sense of the unique circumstances that led to the existence of our planet. “If you think about these radioactive isotopes — these rock-forming elements and life-forming elements,” she said, “when you know how they are produced in stars, you realize it is not so easy to get the right amount. You have to form at the right time and place.” Contributing Writer March 2, 2026 Get Quanta Magazine delivered to your inbox Get highlights of the most important news delivered to your email inbox Quanta Magazine moderates comments to facilitate an informed, substantive, civil conversation. Abusive, profane, self-promotional, misleading, incoherent or off-topic comments will be rejected. Moderators are staffed during regular business hours (New York time) and can only accept comments written in English. Forgot your password ? We’ll email you instructions to reset your password Enter your new password
Hybrid power purchase agreements (PPAs) combining solar and storage are proving harder to close with industrial offtakers than standard solar deals, despite growing market interest. Image: pv magazine From ESS News BBDF 2026 held a panel on hybrid PPAs, with panellists all familiar with the comparatively easy days of solar PPAs. As projects are increasingly co-located, and the wish for banks and financiers is to have some BESS revenues locked down in tolling contracts and not 100% merchant operated, the context for the conversation is to look at how industrial offtakers are stepping up. Also added to the mix is that standalone solar projects backed by standard long-term offtake agreements are losing their bankability case. Adding a battery is increasingly not optional. The panel brought together Christoph Strassner, CEO of MaxSolar; Alexander Straube, director of flexibility and structured transactions at EnBW; Julius Kies of DAL Deutsche Anlagen-Leasing; and Pieter van der Meulen, senior account manager at LevelTen Energy. To continue reading, please visit our ESS News website. This content is protected by copyright and may not be reused. If you want to cooperate with us and would like to reuse some of our content, please contact: editors@pv-magazine.com. More articles from Tristan Rayner Please be mindful of our community standards. Your email address will not be published.Required fields are marked *
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TNO has taken an important step in the development of solar energy. By better integrating solar energy into buildings, more space is created for sustainable electricity generation without additional strain on landscape or infrastructure. Researchers at TNO have successfully applied a perovskite solar module on foil to a roof tile. Despite its curved shape, the solar roof tile module achieves an energy efficiency of 12.4%. This marks an important step towards better integrating solar energy into the built environment, creating more room for sustainable electricity generation without additional pressure on land or infrastructure. The perovskite solar module on flexible foil has been applied in collaboration with ASAT B.V. to a curved composite roof tile. Measurements show that bending the module onto the roof tile has only a limited effect on its performance. The individual modules achieved an energy efficiency of up to 13.8%. After installation on a curved roof tile, 12.4% efficiency was retained. ‘To the best of my knowledge, this is the world’s first electrically functioning solar roof tile concept based on flexible perovskite solar cells.’ Ilker Dogan Senior Scientist at TNO Solar This breakthrough is important because the used materials and processes are directly ready for industrial application: they operate under normal conditions and are suitable for large-scale roll-to-roll production of flexible solar foils. This research line enables both customised solutions and large‑scale application of flexible solar foils. TNO has completed the full development pathway: from small test cells in the laboratory, to flexible modules measuring 10 by 10 centimeters, and ultimately to a perovskite solar roof tile that can be directly applied in practice. ‘This allows roofs and infrastructure to generate sustainable electricity without compromising on design or aesthetics. This makes it an important step in the further development of solar energy in the built environment.’ Roland Valckenborg Senior Project Manager at TNO Solar The roof tile is the result of collaboration within the TNO Solar Program, which brings together expertise in materials development, production technologies and testing. The project was carried out with Dutch and European partners and supports the ambition to strengthen the solar manufacturing industry in the Netherlands and Europe. Dogan: ‘The close collaboration across national and European projects enables our team to advance perovskite technology toward a full R2R manufacturing platform. We are working to demonstrate what flexible perovskite PV can achieve when produced entirely in R2R.’ The development aligns with broader goals related to the energy transition, sustainability and energy security. TNO will continue in the coming period to improve the lifetime, reliability and scalability of the technology. This lays the foundation for a next phase in which flexible perovskite solar modules can find their way into commercial applications. On 11 March, TNO established the spin‑out Perovion Technologies to help with the realisation of this commercialisation. This demonstrator is supported by the Province of North Brabant through the project ‘Solar manufacturing industry to Brabant, Solliance 2.0’. Additional funding was received from the European Union’s Horizon Europe programme for the LUMINOSITY* project. The work was also partly funded by the National Growth Fund programme SolarNL. Martijn van Gruijthuijsen, deputy Economy at the Province of North-Brabant: ‘In Brabant, we are working on solutions to the social challenges of today and tomorrow. Thanks to the collaboration within the Solar innovation coalition and the bright minds at TNO, solar cell roof tiles are the next step in the energy transition. We aim to improve solar energy, make it more affordable and more available, while laying the foundation for increased production in Europe.’ Paul Gosselink, program manager New Energy, BOM: ‘This is a tangible and incredible result out of the “Innovatie Coalitie Solar”, started in 2023 by TNO/Solliance, the Province of North Brabant and the Brabant Development Agency (BOM is a Brabant-based public–private collaboration that brings together leading companies) to rebuild a competitive European solar manufacturing ecosystem, with a strong focus on next generation flexible perovskite solar technology. With this promising product BOM sees the start of creating new economic value and jobs in Brabant, and reduce Europe’s strategic dependence on non European solar supply chains.’ Karl Kiel, founder of Advanced Solar Applications Technology B.V. (ASAT): ‘This demonstrator of Perovskite Solar PV integrated into our Roof Tiles shows that a commercial introduction is on the short-term horizon.’ *This work has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon Europe research and innovation programme for project LUMINOSITY under grant agreement No 101147653. Follow your favorite subjects.
A massive increase in solar power generation capacity is already putting Australia on the fast track to a 100% renewable energy future. Image: pv magazine From pv magazine Australia An academic living in cold Canberra retired his gas heaters a few years ago and installed electric heat pumps for space and water heating. His gas bill went to zero. He also bought an electric vehicle, so his gas bill went to zero. He installed rooftop solar panels that export enough solar electricity to the grid to pay for electricity imports at night, so his electricity bill also went to zero. That Canberra academic will get his money back from these energy investments in about eight years. I am that academic and I’m experiencing how rooftop solar coupled with electrification of everything provides the cheapest domestic energy in history. Solar energy is also causing the fastest energy change in history. Along with support from wind energy, it offers unlimited, cheap, clean and reliable energy forever. With energy storage effectively a problem solved, the required raw materials impossible to exhaust – despite some misconceptions in the community – and an Australian transition gathering pace, solar and wind are becoming a superhighway to a future of 100% renewable energy. While the technological arguments for solar and wind power are compelling, it’s clear renewables have to overcome obstacles. One is division over the impact of the rollout of renewable energy infrastructure. It has divided affected communities across the country and needs to be addressed. Generous compensation and effective education about large regional economic opportunities are good ways forward. There is also the political debate about what form Australia’s energy transition even takes. Yet, beyond those issues, solar offers unlimited energy for billions of years and provides the cheapest energy in history with zero greenhouse gases, zero smog and zero water consumption. That explains why solar energy generation is growing tenfold each decade and, with support from wind, dominates global power station construction markets, while global nuclear electricity generation has been static for 30 years and is largely irrelevant. In 2024, twice as much new solar generation capacity – about 560 GW – was added compared with all other systems put together. Wind, hydro, coal, gas and nuclear added up to about 280 GW. There will be more global solar generation capacity in 2030 than everything else combined, assuming current growth rates continue. Solar generation will pass wind and nuclear generation this year and should catch coal generation around 2031. About 37% of Australia’s electricity already comes from solar and wind, with an additional 6% from hydroelectric power stations that were built decades ago. More solar energy is generated per person in Australia than in any other country. Solar is by far the best method of removing fossil fuels – which cause three-quarters of global greenhouse emissions – from the economy. In Australia, 99% of new generation capacity installed since 2015 has been solar and wind and it is all private money. The energy market is saying very clearly that solar and wind have won the energy race and energy policies are consistent with reaching the government target of 82% renewable electricity by 2030. Solar on the roof coupled with energy storage in a hot water tank, an EV battery and a home battery allows a family to ride through interruptions to gas, petrol and electricity supply and that energy resilience can apply at domestic, city, state and national levels. Balancing high levels of solar and wind energy to avoid supply interruptions is straightforward at low cost using off-the-shelf technology available from vast production lines. New transmission brings new solar and wind power into the cities and also smooths out the vagaries of local weather by transmitting solar and wind electricity to where it is needed. For example, if it is raining in Victoria and sunny in New South Wales, then electricity can be transmitted south. Storage comprises batteries for short-term storage of a few hours and pumped hydro energy storage for hours to days. Together, batteries and pumped hydro solve the energy storage issues. Pumped hydro energy storage provides about 95% of global energy storage. It typically comprises two reservoirs located a few km apart and with an altitude difference of between 500 and 1,000 meters. On sunny or windy days renewable sources like solar or wind power are used to pump water into the uphill reservoir and during the night the water flows back downhill through the turbine to recover the stored energy. The same water can go up and down between the reservoirs for 100 years. Global potential pumped hydro energy storage is equivalent to two trillion electric vehicle batteries. Australia has about 300 times more pumped hydro energy storage potential than needed to support 100% renewable electricity. It already has three pumped hydro systems, with two more under construction. Globally, the world has more than 820,000 potential pumped hydro sites, which is about 200 times more than we need to support a 100% renewable energy system. From 2028, Snowy 2.0 will provide 85% of energy storage in the national energy market at a cost 10 times lower than equivalent batteries and with a lifetime that is five times longer. There are those – often vested interests – who throw up arguments against solar energy, regardless of what the facts say about its merits. Here are a few: Most of the area in solar and wind farms remains in use for agriculture. The area withdrawn from agriculture to generate all our energy from solar and wind is very small, equating to about the size of a large living room per person. Heat maps developed by researchers at the Australian National University show the vast number of good locations for solar and wind farms. Hosts of solar and wind farms (and their neighbours) are generously compensated, while hosts of transmission lines are paid more than $200,000 per km. All the solar farms, wind farms, transmission and pumped hydro are in regional areas which means that vast amounts of money and employment are flowing into regional areas. Solar farms are usually invisible from other properties. Open cut roads, buildings, open cut coal mines and gas fields are also visible in the landscape. People in cities have a far more cluttered view from their windows than rural people. No critical minerals are required, only substitutable minerals. Solar panels require silicon for the solar cells, glass, plastic and conductors, which are made from extremely abundant materials. The amount of solar panel waste generated when all energy (not just electricity) comes from solar amounts to about 16 kg per person per year (mostly glass). Panel waste is a small and solvable problem. Author: Professor Andrew Blakers AO is a professor of engineering at the Australian National University. His primary research interests are in advanced silicon solar cells – increasing efficiency and reducing costs – and detailed analysis of energy systems based on 50 to 100% wind and solar photovoltaics supported by storage. This content is protected by copyright and may not be reused. If you want to cooperate with us and would like to reuse some of our content, please contact: editors@pv-magazine.com. More articles from pv magazine It’s great to see Australia making strides towards 100% renewable energy! The increase in solar power generation is impressive and shows a commitment to sustainability. Excited to see how this impacts the global energy landscape! Please be mindful of our community standards. Your email address will not be published.Required fields are marked *
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English news in Spain for expats, residents and visitors It is often said that knowledge is power, and this is never more accurate than when you establish yourself as a foreign resident in a new country, like Spain. Being able to quickly familiarise yourself with the culture, rules, events, and customs can help ease the transition during a challenging time. This is why Euro Weekly News makes it our mission to provide you with a free news resource in English that covers both regional and national Spanish news – anything that we feel you will benefit from knowing as you integrate into your new community and live your best life in Spain. In this way, you can forget about translating articles from Spanish into awkward English that probably don’t make much sense. Let us be your convenient and essential guide to all things that will likely affect you as a foreign resident living in Spain. Almeria
It is often said that knowledge is power, and this is never more accurate than when you establish yourself as a foreign resident in a new country, like Spain. Being able to quickly familiarise yourself with the culture, rules, events, and customs can help ease the transition during a challenging time. This is why Euro Weekly News makes it our mission to provide you with a free news resource in English that covers both regional and national Spanish news – anything that we feel you will benefit from knowing as you integrate into your new community and live your best life in Spain. In this way, you can forget about translating articles from Spanish into awkward English that probably don’t make much sense. Let us be your convenient and essential guide to all things that will likely affect you as a foreign resident living in Spain. Almeria
By Natascha Rivera • Published: 05 Apr 2026 • 14:48 • 1 minute read Murcia installs solar panels to cut costs and emissions Photo Credit: Murcia City Hall The Murcia City Council has installed more than 100 solar panels on three municipal buildings in order to reduce emissions and save nearly €15,000 in energy on an annual basis. The initiative also aims to promote sustainable energy in the area and in the Region of Murcia as a whole. The project included the installation of 38 solar panels on each of the three buildings, for a total of 114 solar panels, as part of the sustainability strategy of the city. The panels have been donated to the Murcia City Council by a company, which will also help with the maintenance of them. Promoted by the Department of Urban Planning, Agriculture and Environment, the initiative benefits the Alquerías Social Centre, the Monteagudo Senior Citizens Centre and the La Alberca Auditorium, all of which will have a self-consumption photovoltaic solar plant on their roofs. Each system will have a peak power of 22.42 kWp and a nominal power of 15 kW, which is enough to cover a significant part of the daily energy needs of these municipal buildings. The energy produced by these panels will be used for self-consumption in each building, and will greatly reduce the dependence on the conventional electricity grid, as well as lower the electricity bills. According to the Murcia City Council, this action will help to reduce the city’s carbon footprint, and emissions coming from energy consumption. The initiative reinforces the commitment to a clean energy transition, as well as a more sustainable city as a whole. These solar panels, as a renewable energy source, improve energy efficiency and reduce the environmental impact of municipal facilities. The Murcia City Council’s eventual goal is to extend these types of measures to other public buildings in the municipality, and move towards more responsible and efficient energy management. Share this story Subscribe to our Euro Weekly News alerts to get the latest stories into your inbox! By signing up, you will create a Euro Weekly News account if you don’t already have one. Review our Privacy Policy for more information about our privacy practices. Natascha is a Dominican writer based in Spain with a background in audiovisual and marketing communication. A lifelong reader and passionate storyteller, she brings a creative edge to her work at Euro Weekly News. Her multicultural perspective informs her coverage of lifestyle and community stories, offering fresh angles and relatable storytelling that connects with a diverse audience. Your email address will not be published.Required fields are marked *
The clean energy transition is extending its reach with three communities in the isolated far west of South Australia set to transition away from high-cost diesel generation to solar and battery energy storage-based microgrids. Image: ARENA From pv magazine Australia The Australian government has announced a fresh round of funding to drive the construction of renewable energy-based microgrids in the remote First Nations communities of Yalata, Pipalyatjara and Oak Valley in South Australia. The Australian Renewable Energy Agency (ARENA) will match AUD 13 million ($8.36 million) in funding from the South Australian government to help deliver high-penetration solar and battery-based microgrids in each of the three communities. ARENA said Yalata, Pipalyatjara and Oak Valley residents are currently reliant on diesel generation and face some of the highest costs and lowest reliability in energy access in the country. The microgrid project aims to achieve a renewable energy penetration of up to 75% in each community with the integration of solar and battery storage set to significantly reduce the use of costly diesel. Following installation of the microgrids, electricity bill payers in the communities will pay a subsidised tariff of 10c/kWh during the lifetime of the microgrids. In addition to the cost savings, ARENA said the project will deliver a range of community benefits, including land lease agreements, opportunities for local employment and procurement, and capacity-building programs designed to support long-term economic development. ARENA Chief Executive Officer Darren Miller said the aim is to ensure the communities are consulted and actively involved in the operation and maintenance of their energy systems. “Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people living in remote communities should be able to participate in the energy transition and share in the benefits of Australia’s renewable future,” he said. “This project is about uplifting communities and supporting inclusion and participation in the energy transition, while working together to reduce emissions.” The South Australian project, funded under the First Nations Community Microgrids stream of the federal government’s $125 million Regional Microgrids Program, comes after ARENA announced $3.6 million in funding to help deliver a hybrid microgrid for the community of Blackstone in Western Australia. That project, which has received a further $9.12 million contribution from the state government, will include up to 778 kW of solar PV, a 2 MWh battery energy storage system and 400 kW of diesel generation. Construction is due to start next month and be completed by the end of 2026. ARENA has also announced $1.4 million to support the development of a new energy service delivery model for First Nations communities in the Northern Territory. Alice Springs-based technical advisory firm Ekistica will lead a project to develop a standardised microgrid delivery model and an improved energy management unit (EMU) designed to enhance system performance and reliability in remote settings. The project aims to create a replicable model that can guide future developments across the Territory. This content is protected by copyright and may not be reused. If you want to cooperate with us and would like to reuse some of our content, please contact: editors@pv-magazine.com. More articles from David Carroll Please be mindful of our community standards. Your email address will not be published.Required fields are marked *
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My account Saved items Buy a gift membership By clicking a retailer link you consent to third-party cookies that track your onward journey. This enables W? to receive an affiliate commission if you make a purchase, which supports our mission to be the UK's consumer champion. With over 10 years’ experience writing about consumer affairs, Sarah leads on energy content at Which?, helping customers navigate the market and exposing poor practice. Use our free home energy planning service, powered by Snugg, to get personalised advice for a more energy-efficient home and lower bills. In this article Well-chosen solar panels can provide a reliable source of renewable electricity for decades, helping to slash your electricity bills and cut your carbon footprint. But buying an inappropriate solar PV system for your home could leave you out of pocket. Use our expert advice to help you decide what's most suitable for your home and the features to look out for before you buy. The number of solar panels you install (or the size of your system) will depend on how much electricity you need to generate and the amount of space available on your roof. It's important to install the right size for your household. Too large a system may be a waste of money if you generate energy that you can’t use, although installing a solar battery and/or exporting energy to the grid can help make the most of any excess. Solar panel system sizes are normally expressed in kilowatt peaks (kWp), which is the maximum output of the system. Live more sustainably: get our free monthly Sustainability newsletter to make eco-friendly changes for you, your home and the planet. Household solar panel systems are typically up to 4kWp. We spoke to more than 2,000 solar panel owners about the size of their system and how much of their electricity it provides in summer and in winter. Which? members can log in to see this data. If you're not a member, join Which? to unlock it. Find out how much solar panels cost. Once they're installed, you may discover unforeseen benefits in your solar panels, but it's worth considering what you are expecting upfront. Solar panel owners we've spoken to have had some quite different motivations: In the past, solar panels were sometimes seen as a money-making opportunity. Some of the homeowners who bought solar panels recently told us that, while they don't expect to benefit financially from their system and weren't driven by that as a motivation, a future owner of their house might well profit from lower bills. Read more: are solar panels worth it? We spoke to hundreds of solar panel owners who bought their systems in the past few years, and asked them to share their top tips on choosing and buying solar panel systems. Which? members can log in to see tips from current solar panel owners. If you're not a member, join Which? to unlock these. No. Solar panels can still produce electricity in winter, or on days when it's cloudy. That's because they use particles of light – or photons – to generate electricity. These are found in both direct and indirect sunlight. But solar panels work best when the sun is shining on them, and they can't produce electricity at night. You’ll need to consider the following factors to know whether solar panels will work for your home: To get a good idea of the potential savings of panels based on your home, you can enter this information into the Energy Saving Trust's solar panel calculator. Find out more about solar panel installation. We recommend that you get at least three quotes from different installers. This will help give you an idea of the going rate for the type of system you want in your area. Also check solar panel costs for an initial guide. As with any building work, compare quotes and make sure they include itemised details of what you'll get for your money. Make sure you get a breakdown of how any claimed energy savings are calculated too. Query any projections that seem too good to be true. Use our Which? Trusted Traders search tool below to find reliable solar panel installers near you. Follow our tips and advice on what you should do, plus the questions to ask, before, during and after a visit from a solar PV installer. The company shouldn't do anything to pressure you into buying the system that day. It shouldn't offer large time-limited discounts to tempt you, or use other pressure-selling techniques. Our free Home Energy Planning tool can help you build a personalised plan to make your home more energy efficient. The most common type of solar panel system used for domestic homes is PV – photovoltaic – panels. They collect energy from the sun in photovoltaic cells, which is then passed through an inverter to generate electricity. Each photovoltaic cell is made up of a series of layers of conductive material. Silicon is the most common. Before you invite any solar panel firms to give you a quote, consider what type of solar PV you want. Solar panels are typically fitted on top of your existing roof, but you can also choose solar tiles and slates, which blend in better. However, these are pricey and may only be practical if you're replacing your roof at the same time. Bifacial solar panels also exist, which can generate electricity from both sides of the panel. To actually use the electricity generated by your solar panels, you need an inverter. This converts the direct current (DC) produced by the panels into usable alternating current (AC). String inverters are the most common and cheapest option. They connect solar panels in series. If one of your panels fails or starts to be overshadowed by a growing tree, it could impact your whole system. Micro-inverters 'separate' the panels so, if one panel fails, the whole system won't be affected. It should also be easier to spot problems through the power-monitoring system. These are more expensive. Inverters are often fitted in the loft so that they're not too far from your solar panels and energy loss in cables is minimised. But they can be affected by the heat, so if your loft tends to get very hot in summer, a garage might be a better bet, if you have one. At Which? we hear concerns from people approached by solar panel companies out of the blue, who put them under pressure to buy quickly. It's also common to get cold calls about add-ons to your existing solar panel system, which you may not need. Many solar panel firms are signed up to a consumer code that bans pressure-selling tactics. But you may still come across unscrupulous tactics. Here's what to watch out for: A reputable firm will give you the time to consider your options and its quote, and will be willing to help provide the information you need to help make your decision. You can report pressure selling to the Renewable Energy Consumer Code by calling 020 7981 0850. See all of our solar panel advice for more reading, or head to our energy efficiency advice for lots of tips on making your home more efficient across the board. Use our free Home Energy Planning Service to build a personalised plan to make your home more energy efficient! Use our free Home Energy Planning Service to build a personalised plan to make your home more energy efficient!
A solar farm could be built on a town's former ski slope if plans are approved. Bracknell's ski slope at the former JNL Bracknell Complex was shut in March 2020 at the start of the coronavirus pandemic. John Nike Leisuresport, which operated it, said it could not find a "financially viable plan" to keep the complex, which included an ice-skating arena, open. Spirit Solar wants to use the site for just over 1,400 solar panels, which it said will "likely have limited visual impact from most directions at ground level" with surrounding tree coverage. About 80% of the electricity will be used by the nearby Coppid Beech Hotel and the rest will be transferred to the grid. Ice hockey club Bracknell Bees were based at the former site for 33 years and nearly 12,000 people signed a petition calling for the complex to stay open when it closed. Bracknell Forest councillors voted to end the routes when they passed their budget in February. Bracknell Forest Council was given the choice of a new school or funding for places elsewhere. Noddy had been missing since Saturday despite numerous sightings Six-year-old Noddy flew off during an exercise session at a recreation ground in Bracknell. The local authority said it was a "difficult decision" but other support would still be available Copyright 2026 BBC. All rights reserved. The BBC is not responsible for the content of external sites. Read about our approach to external linking.
University of South Australia researchers have proposed national certification and digital tracking systems to enable the reuse of second-hand solar panels and reduce landfill waste. Image: PV Cycle From pv magazine Australia University of South Australia (UniSA) researchers studied mitigation strategies to help keep solar panels out of landfill, and maximise their life span, by using techniques such as block chain-based platforms or a certification program for second-hand modules. Led by UniSA PhD student Ishika Chhillar, the research team investigated barriers to the sustainable reuse of solar panels and developed a mitigation strategy for what would be needed to fully realise a circular economy in the solar sector. “The large-scale reuse of PV panels faces technical, economic and regulatory barriers,” Chhillar said. “There are many key challenges including the low cost of new panels undercutting the resale PV panel market, a lack of incentives for reuse of the panels, different policies for reuse across states, lack of liability for second hand installations and a limited infrastructure for testing and refurbishing of used panels.” “Industry, government, academic and consumers all recognize that these barriers can and must be overcome, and that with the right frameworks in place, Australia can extend the life of its solar panels with true environmental and social benefits in the process,” Chhillar said. National approach Publishing their findings in the Sustainability journal, called Certification for Solar Panel Reuse: A Systematic Review of Cross-Sector Practices and Gaps, the researchers concluded recycling panels is not enough because significant volumes of end-of-life panels still end up in landfill. Chhillar and her colleagues propose unlocking a secondary market for used systems, though a barrier to people accessing second-hand panels is the falling cost of new panels which undermines the resale market leaving little financial incentive for consumers or businesses to choose to reuse. Chhillar said that without a unified, national approach to standards and liability, companies will continue to avoid second-hand products due to compliance risks. “Currently, the lack of any standard certification for used panels means buyers and installers have little to rely on besides a seller’s word, but an official certification process would change that,” Chhillar said. “A credible certification program should include standardized testing protocols for used panels. By bridging the trust gap, certification can transform reused panels from a risky option into a transparent and standardized product category.” Chhillar proposes one option being that certification is accompanied with a clear, consumer-friendly grading system such as a gold, silver or bronze classification or a star-rating label to indicate the remaining efficiency and expected lifespan of a panel. “This would allow buyers to make informed decisions,” Chhillar said. The researchers said there is currently no clear guideline for re-selling and installing used panels across states and territories, leaving installers wary of potential legal liabilities. Digital tracking UniSA Co-author on the study, Executive Director for the Centre of Workplace Excellence and Associate Professor Sukhbir Sandhu said there is also room for digital innovations for traceability, allowing for greater transparency on whether a panel is fit for reuse. “If each solar panel’s history and performance data could be recorded in a database accessible to buyers and regulators, it would dramatically reduce uncertainty,” Sandhu said. “Industry experts we spoke to for this study proposed solutions ranging from simple QR-code labels to block chain-based platforms that track a panel’s “digital passport” throughout its life.” Sandhu said transparency would enable quicker decisions on whether a panel is fit for reuse, without requiring extra testing at each change of hands. “We have other established practices in electronics, batteries and mobile phones, so by acting on these recommendations, Australia can not only mitigate the waste problem but also unlock the maximum benefit of its clean energy investments,” Sandhu said. “By embracing a structured approach to the repurposing of solar panels, the renewable energy sector can significantly extend the lifecycle of these resources, contributing to a more sustainable, efficient and circular economy.” In August 2025, commonwealth, state and territory governments agreed to progress work towards a national product stewardship scheme for solar panels, ensuring they are managed from start to end of life, with the objective of steering panels away from landfill and into remanufacture or recycling programs. The NSW government said then that annual solar panel waste volumes in Australia are predicted to nearly double over the next five years, from 59,340 tonnes in 2025 to 91,165 tonnes in 2030 but in March 2025, the Australian Energy Council put the figure of cumulative volume of end-of-life solar panels in Australia at 280,000 tonnes by the of 2025. The Smart Energy Council estimates that around one-third of solar panels could be re-used instead of being thrown away and could contribute up to 24 GW of energy by 2040, enough to power six million homes a year. Smart Energy Council Chief Executive Officer John Grimes said in August, it’s been a decade since the federal government acknowledged solar panels going into landfill was a problem. “Now, four million panels are coming off roofs a year with less than 5% being recycled, the time for talk has passed, an immediate first step is a national solar stewardship pilot to keep the industry alive and inform the Regulatory Impact Statement,” Grimes said. This content is protected by copyright and may not be reused. If you want to cooperate with us and would like to reuse some of our content, please contact: editors@pv-magazine.com. More articles from Ev Foley Please be mindful of our community standards. Your email address will not be published.Required fields are marked *
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Lawrence County Presiding Commissioner Bob Senninger speaks to the crowd at a meeting with Geronimo Power representatives about a solar farm and battery storage site being built in Jasper and Lawrence counties around the north side of La Russell to provide power for what’s being called a hyperscale data center. Globe | John Hacker
Lawrence County Presiding Commissioner Bob Senninger speaks to the crowd at a meeting with Geronimo Power representatives about a solar farm and battery storage site being built in Jasper and Lawrence counties around the north side of La Russell to provide power for what’s being called a hyperscale data center. Globe | John Hacker MOUNT VERNON, Mo. — Nearly 40 residents of Jasper and Lawrence counties listened Monday at the Lawrence County Health Department as representatives of Geronimo Power presented plans for a 640-acre solar farm in western Lawrence County. The Lawrence County Commission heard from Geronimo project manager Mark Jones, community engagement specialist Samantha Meadows, attorney Mark Brady and permit specialist Alia Mohammad on the scope and scale of the solar farm in Lawrence County tied to a data center site nearby in Jasper County. “This is primarily informational, just to give you a status and update as to where we’re at in our efforts to bring this project to life,” Jones said. “And then, since we are at a stage where we’re starting to feel very confident about this, our ability to deliver this project in the entirety, there are a couple of items that remain that are county business. That has to do with a road-use agreement and, secondly, a development agreement. We are at a 60% design phase and what that means is we do three or four renditions of different designs once we gather more information about the site and what that means is we go out and double and triple check our efforts.” Jones told commissioners that they’ve got lease agreements from landowners for solar project in Lawrence County. That 640-acre project will be built as part of a total of 2,000 acres of solar panels and battery storage in Jasper and Lawrence counties near La Russell to produce about 150 megawatts of electricity to provide part of the power needed to run what’s being called a hyperscale data center that would be built just southwest of La Russell. Jones told the commissioners the company is working toward starting construction on the solar farm by May 2027. He said the company has leases with local landowners for the 640 acres it needs in Lawrence County. Those leases will be for 25 years with the potential for three 10-year extensions, or a total of 55 years. Brady, the attorney, talked about efforts to ensure that local entities benefit from taxes that are generated by the project. “Historically, in the state of Missouri, solar energy projects were tax-exempt, so they wouldn’t be paying property taxes,” Brady said. “A couple of years ago, the Missouri Supreme Court ruled that that statutory tax exemption was unconstitutional. And so at that point, it became uncertain how solar projects were to be taxed because the state didn’t have a specific statute that said here is how solar projects are taxed and here’s how the taxes flow to the various local taxing jurisdictions. So that does not exist currently.” Brady said he didn’t have numbers on revenue for local agencies on hand at the meeting. Jasper County Presiding Commissioner John Bartosh was at the meeting, along with other county officials and residents who live near the project. Bartosh said he attended the meeting mainly to tell the Lawrence County Commission that the Jasper County Commission has signed no agreements with Geronimo Power related to the project. He also said he didn’t know how either commission could stop it because neither county has planning and zoning. “Nobody wants planning and zoning,” Bartosh said. “We tried it twice in Jasper County, and it failed miserably. I don’t want it. I want to be able to build a turkey barn where I want to build it on my land. And these people from Geronimo have the right to put a data center and solar farm where they want to put it. I’m not against that, but it needs to be put in properly. I know a lot of people are against it, but there were a lot of things brought out today that are not true. Sure, I wish it wasn’t here, but as far as stopping them, I don’t believe we’ve got a way of stopping them.” Amber Turner, who lives in Jasper County near the site, said she was worried about how this will affect her land and home and whether she’ll have anything left to leave her children. “I’m scared to death,” Turner said. “My life goal was to leave my property to my children, and that’s going to be wrecked. I raised them in the creeks and I don’t know how my grandchildren are going to play there now, how my livestock going to live. I live next to cattle. How are the cattle going to survive with the noise, the lights, when there’s no water for them?” A public meeting about the solar farm and data center will be held a 7 p.m. Thursday, April 23, at Sarcoxie High School. SARCOXIE, Mo. — A Minnesota technology firm is planning a data center and solar energy park on land south of Missouri Highway 96 and west of La Russell and County Route U in eastern Jasper County. 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Since 1860 Since 1860 HomeNews Article A giant solar farm covering more than one and a half thousand football pitches, could be built near Stratford. The earmarked swathe of land stretches over four square miles and includes four main sites across south Warwickshire and east Worcestershire. A map shows the proposed development comes close to Bidford, Wixford, Salford Priors and Cleeve Priors. Arrow Valley Solar, the developer behind the project, has submitted a scoping report to the planning inspectorate and invited feedback from residents. The solar farm proposal confirms it covers approximately 2,600 acres, although Arrow Valley says not all of that land will be used for solar panels. The farm, able to generate up to 500 megawatts of renewable energy and power tens of thousands of homes, would include solar panels, a battery energy storage system, substations plus an underground cable route linking solar sites with one another and with the national grid at Feckenham substation. Arrow Valley says there will be no pylons, and landowners will still be able to graze livestock in the fields where panels are. The land falls within the jurisdiction of three planning authorities including Stratford District Council, Redditch Borough Council and Wychavon District Council as well as two county councils – Warwickshire and Worcestershire. Because of the size of the project, the solar farm is classed as a nationally significant infrastructure project and will need a special type of planning permission known as a development consent order (DCO). Arrow Valley has started environmental surveys and the formal planning process and aims to submit its DCO application in spring next year [2027]. The final decision will be made by the Secretary of State for Energy Security and Net Zero. If planning is approved, construction could start by 2029 and the solar farm to be up and running by 2031. Arrow Valley Solar is owned by Island Green Power which has delivered just over 20 solar and storage projects in the country including at Cottam, the UK’s largest consented solar project. On its website, Arrow says: ‘At this early stage of the project, we have not yet decided where within the sites any of this infrastructure will go. ‘We will be developing our proposals over the course of 2026 to consider the results of environmental surveys, before undertaking a public consultation at the end of the year. ‘We will consult local communities, policymakers, local authorities and statutory bodies, such as Natural England, to gain feedback, understand issues and help address concerns. ‘We use this process to refine project proposals before the application is submitted to the Planning Inspectorate.’ A formal public consultation is expected to take place in Winter 2026/2027 but in the meantime, Arrow Valley has said it welcomes feedback. To see the location of the proposed solar farm click here and to read Arrow Valley Solar’s scoping report, click here
First Solar, Enphase Energy, Nextpower, SolarEdge Technologies, Turbo Energy, Solaris Energy Infrastructure, and Sunrun are the seven Solar stocks to watch today, according to MarketBeat’s stock screener tool. Solar stocks are shares of publicly traded companies whose primary business is tied to the solar power industry — for example manufacturers of photovoltaic cells and panels, makers of inverters and trackers, system installers and developers, utility-scale project owners (including yieldcos), and suppliers of materials or services to solar projects. Investors buy solar stocks to gain exposure to growth in renewable energy and decarbonization, while bearing risks from technology change, commodity costs, interest rates, and shifting government incentives or policies. These companies had the highest dollar trading volume of any Solar stocks within the last several days.
First Solar (FSLR)
First Solar, Inc., a solar technology company, provides photovoltaic (PV) solar energy solutions in the United States, France, Japan, Chile, and internationally. The company manufactures and sells PV solar modules with a thin film semiconductor technology that provides a lower-carbon alternative to conventional crystalline silicon PV solar modules. Read Our Latest Research Report on FSLR
Enphase Energy (ENPH)
Enphase Energy, Inc., together with its subsidiaries, designs, develops, manufactures, and sells home energy solutions for the solar photovoltaic industry in the United States and internationally. The company offers semiconductor-based microinverter, which converts energy at the individual solar module level and combines with its proprietary networking and software technologies to provide energy monitoring and control. Read Our Latest Research Report on ENPH
Nextpower (NXT)
Nextpower, formerly known as Nextracker, an energy solutions company, provides solar trackers and software solutions for utility-scale and distributed generation solar projects in the United States and internationally. The company offers tracking solutions, which includes NX Horizon, a solar tracking solution; and NX Horizon-XTR, a terrain-following tracker designed to expand the addressable market for trackers on sites with sloped, uneven, and challenging terrain. Read Our Latest Research Report on NXT
SolarEdge Technologies (SEDG)
SolarEdge Technologies, Inc., together with its subsidiaries, designs, develops, manufactures, and sells direct current (DC) optimized inverter systems for solar photovoltaic (PV) installations in the United States, Germany, the Netherlands, Italy, rest of Europe, and internationally. It operates in two segments, Solar and Energy Storage. Read Our Latest Research Report on SEDG
Turbo Energy (TURB)
Turbo Energy, S.A. designs, develops, and distributes equipment for the generation, management, and storage of photovoltaic energy in Spain, rest of Europe, and internationally. The company offers lithium-ion batteries; inverters; photovoltaic modules; Go Solar, a portable photovoltaic product; and Sunbox, an AI based software system that monitors the generation, use, and management of photovoltaic energy. Read Our Latest Research Report on TURB
Solaris Energy Infrastructure (SEI)
Solaris Energy Infrastructure, Inc. is a holding company, which engages in the manufacture of patented mobile proppant management systems that unload, store, and deliver proppant to oil and natural gas well sites. Its products include Mobile Proppant and Mobile Chemical Management Systems, and Inventory Management Software. Read Our Latest Research Report on SEI
Sunrun (RUN)
Sunrun Inc. designs, develops, installs, sells, owns, and maintains residential solar energy systems in the United States. It also sells solar energy systems and products, such as panels and racking; and solar leads generated to customers. In addition, the company offers battery storage along with solar energy systems; and sells services to commercial developers through multi-family and new homes. Read Our Latest Research Report on RUN
Ready to get up to 3 free quotes? Get up to 3 free quotes for solar, batteries, EV chargers or hot water heat pumps GET MY QUOTES Despite showing up at All Energy conference with a perfectly swank and expensive trade stand, it appears SMA Australia has quietly withdrawn from the Australian market. Surely SMA haven’t gone broke? No, they’ll maintain a presence in the large scale commercial sector for solar farms. It’s been a couple weeks since I saw a grainy photo of a PC screen which put a ripple of disbelief through solar circles, however the PDF copy obtained since is clear enough. What was once the undisputed Australian market leader in solar inverters, SMA have packed up their sales operation completely. This is all the confirmation we have at the moment. A foundational part of mass market solar and ongoing part of the industry furniture, SMA will be missed by the kind of people who prioritised quality and longevity. Probably the oldest SMA I encountered – a BP Solar branded GCI200 coupled to Australian made, 75 watt frameless BP Solar panels. Thankfully SMA are honourable enough to honour their warranties – they’re apparently maintaining a local office so everyone with a SunnyBoy/Sunny Island/Sunny Storage can still enjoy a bright outlook. Although I don’t know how “smart connected” services will work going forward. It’s a stark contrast to Hanwha effectively abandoning Australia when they pulled the pin on Qcells. As a sole trader I never advertised. Either I got to yarning with people or my phone simply rang because someone had recommended me. For years I simply installed SMA Sunny Boy TL5000 inverters with 20 plus panels on the roof, and they were rock solid. Reliability personified. The only time I weakened, a customer talked me into a cheap piece of junk, which taught me a great lesson. You should never compromise your standards because replacing a Growatt 5 times over doesn’t pay. However none of my customers have ever rang back to complain about the stout red box on the wall, but sadly the sands of time have caught up with some of the Simax panels I’d installed with SMA inverters. The guys at Suntrix said Simax were excellent quality, but in retrospect I should have been selling REC panels. When your panels turn out to be rubbish and the water leaks into the edges, you end up with earth faults which knobble output until they possibly dry out. The problem will only get worse and your SMA inverter will protest with a red light and an isolation error on the screen. “Insulation resist” and the dreaded red light have brough production to a stop after 91.926MWh and 11yrs 4 days – roughly 22.85kWh/day. About the only flaw to report was an occasional screen failure simply due to age. As SolarQuotes founder Finn Peacock commented to me about SMA recently: “they did it to themselves”. It’s a shame really, but when you’re leading the market there’s always a possibility of falling off the wheel. As I recall, there were a few factors which may have brought SMA undone. A 2008 world economic crisis was dodged by Australia, but the German company didn’t maintain production enough to satisfy the burgeoning market here. My own house ended up with an Australian made Latronics PVE2500 because we couldn’t buy anything else. The incredibly heavy and robust SunnyBoy 1100, 1700 & 2500, or SMC series were the industry standard for many years, but when SMA moved to transformerless topology the TL 3000, 4000 & 5000 took over everywhere. Then came the HF units for a short while. The SMA HF3000 solar inverter. However the real defining moment was when the German-manufactured Sunny Boy TL was superseded around 2016 by the AV 40. All of a sudden we had “premium” products that were dead on arrival. Installers were already upset that the screen had gone missing, but a ludicrous quality control failure that delivered brand new but broken inverters just torched SMA’s reputation. I’ve never seen an AV40 catch fire but they certainly incinerated SMA’s reputation. Everyone said screw you and your move to Chinese manufacture. Especially when there was a separate cheap brand brought out with SMA support. ZeverSolar had a short life and I’m thankful I only ever dirtied my hands on one of them. SMA Sunny Island 48V battery inverters turned up everywhere, including this Redfow off grid system with a tonne of lead batteries in the back end. When Fronius came out with the snapinverter range, the rest was history. While SMA had replaced the trusty and infomative LCD screen with 3 LEDs and a newfangled monitoring app, they found people just don’t like change. Fronius had an equally good Austrian reputation and they had a better screen. With the right code installers had probably a hundred menus accessible via 4 buttons. Solarweb online monitoring available via WiFi and no pesky bluetooth interface, it was a real winner. It seems SMA have just lost interest in Australia. Even with the release of the new hybrid battery systems in October 2023, the EV charger wasn’t part of the Australian lineup, Though we have at least one 5 star review of it being installed. As recently as March 2025 they were talking up a recovery after some pretty ordinary results, but it seems Australia just isn’t part of the plan. Please leave us some comments, or better still, write a review if you have a good yarn to tell about SMA. You never know, they might come back one day. Sign up for our weekly newsletter!
Anthony joined the SolarQuotes team in 2022. He’s a licensed electrician, builder, roofer and solar installer who for 14 years did jobs all over SA – residential, commercial, on-grid and off-grid. A true enthusiast with a skillset the typical solar installer might not have, his blogs are typically deep dives that draw on his decades of experience in the industry to educate and entertain. Read Anthony’s full bio. They sound like the “Nokia” of the solar industry. There are plenty of old time installers who wax lyrical about the sunny boys, never heard one talk up anything newer from the company. Surprised they stayed 10 years after effectively killing their product. Sort of. Nokia had the market but didn’t innovate enough and were caught flat footed selling the same thing when the iPhone was released. A better product in every metric. This is an example of a good product that can’t compete with the influx of cheap Chinese inverters. A trend repeating through most industries. It’s up to us, as consumers, to research and make the best decision with an eye on the long term. To be clear, there is nothing wrong with Chinese inverters but the issue is when all the manufacturing and IP is concentrated with one entity. The same thing applies to Bunnings (with distribution) as an example. With the passing of the king of inverters, it begs the questions, 1. who is the successor or has the kingdom been divided between the Lords of Europe and Asia. 2. how long will they reign, hopefully much longer than the warranty period? 3. what can be learned from the king’s passing so that history does not repeat itself. SMA removed its inverter screen. What brilliant but ill-conceived idea will poison the new reign. Will it be something to do with AI, bluetooth, ethernet or VPP connection? Or is the writing on the wall for lithium? 4. what is happening to the courtiers (employees) of Australia’s SMA empire? Is SMA looking after its staff who liased with us solar peasants in the sale and maintenance of the ubiquitos red and blue boxes? Did they arrive at work to find their front door entry code no longer worked and a sign saying “the personals from your desk will be posted to your home address.” Feel free to weigh-in. Probably, only the last question is the most pressing. The three basic rules that apply to any business entity are the cost to get in, the cost to stay in, and the cost to get out. Today, it is less about the hardware and more about the functionality and the interface, which can be accessed [reporting] and/or configured by the user. I can access my solar and storage systems on my iPhone from any location with internet access. If you are not in the cloud you have nothing to offer. Also data reliability. If you get garbage output every daymonthyear you have a blackout then the information you see will be useless, unless you actually believe your house managed GWh output one day of the year, or achieved negative output on another! My data recorded by the retailer, inverter solar and battery are all within acceptable tolerances of each other. I get multiple powercuts a year so my data average is about 4 garbage months a year, and every year is garbage. The data is somewhat useful, but not totally reliable. Thankfully my retailer also provides data so I can look at that too, though there is a slight discrepancy between what I export, and what they record as receiving – efficiency loss. More likely timing Your new-fangled cloud-whatever system will suffer from its own form of technology rot way way faster than a sheet of unpainted mild steel if left on the tidal zone on a beach in a tropical area. Still, enjoy it while you have it. I guess SMA cost-cut themselves out of contention a long time ago. The days of anything stamped “.. In Germany” with its implied good product design and whatever standing are long gone especially when everything is a hodge podge of bits and pieces from half a dozen or more places with dubious QC. And then consider your shiny new Internet everywhere connected kit is only ever as good as the weakest link. And so much of these weak links are often software – usually in the form of crappy software locked inside Bluetooth or wifi modules or other embedded components that simply can’t be updated in the field. That’s the start of the rot right there. In top of that add the cloud based systems needed to make all that work cost a ton of money to build and run. the cloud can we be easily hosted by the inverter itself for local acces, actual cloud can be side by sde etc to that, this just so you can use you phone to see your system I have an SMA Sunnyboy SB1100 Inverter, quietly doing the business since March 2008 without problems, producing some 20,066kWh worth of green electrons and STILL going strong, a testament to ‘Made in Germany’ quality. Their greed was a contributor as well. No more Primo’s. In stead, you had to buy an expensive GEN 24 with fan failures. Deye was such a cheaper option and with SMA staying power. I have 3.3Kw of REC Solar Panels paired with SMA TL4000 which ahs been running flawlessly since April 2011. Over 65,000Kwh produced in that time in Geelong VIC Staff probably saw the recent industry growth and left leaving SMA with fewer staff and they found it hard to attract people. A dying star. This is like the former car industry. And it will be what happens to the US car giants. Chinese supply with lower costs and improved tech will kill the noble. Cost competition destroys originators and those that sell at high prices by selling fear. Just as japanese cars were surpassed by korean cars and now china dominates. No us car giant can recover. They wind back and collapse. Not just in production scale but with tech development and improvements. All things solar are headed that way. Fight it or flight it ! So many sales pitches for anything solar start and end with fear of cheap chinese quality. A few years ago you couldn’t give away some cars made in china. I see the solar industry heading this way.. I had a great run with an SMA TL5000 inverter. The company went quietly belly up in 2016 or 2017, which wasn’t surprising considering the abysmal initial install job. Something caused all 14 panels to get hot spots in the middle going into bypass and robbing the system of much needed voltage output. But it soldiered on until a few years ago when something fell out of the sky and totaled one panel, which tried to catch fire and burn my shed. It is current off line until I can find one or more panels and get it going again. I was glad that I insisted on the SMA Inverter which still should be capable of going back into service. One right choice out of 3 with the Hyundai panels with no warranty as the dodgy company direct imported them, and the crap install finally fixed a month after the initial switch on. approved by an electrical inspector who never visited the property and a supervising electrician who was never on site for the installation.. Sounds like you had a crappy time for the original install – a good example of the reasons we have the current regime of daily limits and photographic proof for the current process for installing systems! I got 20 Les of solar installed in 2012(10 on the house and shed) using SMA inverters here in Melbourne.Still going strong The end was nigh when SMA handed production to the Chinese. An inevitable result is my opinion,as they put profit over good performance. Tried a couple of times about wanting to buy and connect a 20kwh sodium ion battery. Found the battery they don’t call back of even reply via email. Try and find a company to install a sodium ion battery, yeah I get they are not up to that technology. Sorry, but it is already here and CATL the largest battery producer in China has already developed Sodium Ion batteries for EV’s. Many installers say they are also booked till September. What I also want is to add an additional 4kw of solar panels to my existing array. So here we are at a dead end with an additional 4kw of solar panels and a 20kwh sodium ion battery and not an installer to be had. So much for the green dream. There are no sodium batteries approved for residential use as yet in Australia – to the best of my knowledge. So you might have to wait a while if that’s what you want. Unless you are an “early adopter” willing to deal with any teething problems, it might also be wise to wait a while even after they are approved. Please keep the SolarQuotes blog constructive and useful with these 5 rules: 1. Real names are preferred – you should be happy to put your name to your comments. 2. Put down your weapons. 3. Assume positive intention. 4. If you are in the solar industry – try to get to the truth, not the sale. 5. Please stay on topic.
Download the first chapter of The Good Solar Guide, authored by SolarQuotes founder Finn Peacock, FREE! You’ll also start receiving the SolarQuotes weekly newsletter, keeping you up to date on all the latest developments on Australia’s solar scene. We respect your privacy and you can opt out from the newsletter at any time.
Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript. Advertisement Scientific Reportsvolume 16, Article number: 5859 (2026) Cite this article 1760 Accesses 3 Citations Metrics details This study employs density functional theory (DFT) and time-dependent DFT (TD-DFT) to design and evaluate eight novel non-fullerene acceptors (NFAs) (G1–G8) for organic solar cells (OSCs). The molecules were engineered through strategic terminal group modification of a reference indacenodithiophene (IDT)-benzothidiazole (BT) based structure. All designed systems exhibit substantially reduced bandgaps (1.73–2.00 eV) and redshifted absorption profiles (λmax = 688–803 nm) compared to the reference molecule (REF), leading to enhanced light-harvesting capabilities (LHE = 0.988–0.998). Marcus charge transfer theory calculations revealed high hole hopping rates (Kh ≈ 10¹⁵ s⁻¹) and low reorganization energies (λh = 0.0031–0.0052 eV), indicating excellent charge transport properties. The comprehensive computational analysis projects outstanding photovoltaic performance with open-circuit voltage (VOC = 1.13–1.66 V), fill factor (FF = 0.8927–0.9205), and estimated power conversion efficiency (PCE = 22.8–37.0%) across the series. Among the designed systems, G7 demonstrates exceptional promise due to its optimal bandgap (1.73 eV), outstanding light-harvesting efficiency (LHE = 0.998), and the highest estimated short-circuit current (JSC = 31.2 mA/cm2), while G5 achieves the highest PCE (37.0%) through balanced photovoltaic parameters. The results establish terminal acceptor engineering as a highly effective strategy for developing high-performance organic photovoltaic materials, with G7 and G5 representing prime targets for experimental validation. The escalating energy crisis has become a significant global challenge, driven by fast population growth, heightened industrialization, and increasing energy necessities1. Although fossil fuels have traditionally been the main energy source, their exhaustion and adverse ecological effects need an immediate shift to environmentally friendly substitutes2. Among numerous renewable energy sources, such as wind, nuclear, and solar energy, whereas solar energy stands out as the most intriguing choice due to its exceptional abundance and commercial viability3. Remarkably, the sun provides an enormous quantity of energy in a single hour, adequate to satisfy the world’s energy requirements for over a year. Despite this remarkable perspective, fewer than 1% of this extensive energy store is efficiently utilized, highlighting the urgent necessity for novel photovoltaic materials that can optimize solar energy transformation effectiveness4. Due to their invention in the nineteenth century, solar cells have emerged as fundamental in turning solar energy into electrical power5. These devices capture ultraviolet radiation via a photoactive layer, generating electron–hole pairs that shift to designated electrodes, thus manufacturing an electric current6. Although silicon-based solar cells have historically been the benchmark due to their beneficial properties, outstanding thermal stability, stable energy levels, and impressive power conversion efficiency (PCE) of almost 46%, they possess inherent constraints7. Their elevated fabrication expenses, mechanical fragility, and inflexible architecture impede development and adaptation. Additionally, the rigidity of their stable composition presents considerable obstacles for structural alterations8. To address these limitations, organic solar cells (OSCs) have arisen as a viable alternative9. By substituting traditional p- and n-type materials with donor and acceptor equivalents, OSCs replicate the essential functional principles of their inorganic opponents10. OSCs have several benefits, encompassing a compact structure, increased mechanical flexibility, streamlined production methods, and better versatility via molecular design11. These characteristics have developed together OSCs as leaders in future-oriented solar energy technology, fostering significant research interest and breakthroughs12. Non-fullerene acceptors (NFAs) have transformed the domain of OSCs by overcoming the inherent constraints of fullerene-based alternatives13. Despite variants of fullerene exhibiting commendable PCE of around 11%, because of their tiny reorganization energy and effective transmission of electrons, their progress is significantly hindered by intrinsic limitations14. They consist of a broad band gap, rigid electrical configuration, restricted synthetic adaptability, and insufficient absorption in the visible spectrum15. Furthermore, the intricate and expensive production of fullerene-based acceptors presents considerable obstacles to extensive commercial implementation16. Conversely, NFAs have remarkable molecular tailoring, allowing for exact adjustment of electronic characteristics to enhance device functionality17,18. Their strong light-harvesting properties stem from optimally matched absorption profiles of the donor (D) and acceptor (A) materials, facilitating effective photon capturing and improved exciton dissociation19,20,21. NFA-based OSCs have enhanced open-circuit voltages (VOC) as a result of reduced energy losses throughout charge separation, leading to increased solar efficiency22,23. Significantly, NFAs surpass fullerene acceptors in thermal endurance, fill factor (FF)24,25, and short-circuit current density (JSC)26,27 demonstrating their capacity to provide high-performance, economical, and scalable solar systems28. The exceptional adaptability of NFAs has facilitated their incorporation into portable, flexible devices, establishing them as a crucial category of materials for contemporary OSCs29,30. Despite significant advances in OSCs, the development of high-performance, low-cost donor materials remains a critical challenge. Current benzothiadiazole-based acceptors often suffer from suboptimal bandgap alignment, inefficient charge transport, or limited light-harvesting capabilities, restricting their power conversion efficiencies. While computational studies have explored molecular modifications, systematic design strategies targeting simultaneous optimization of optoelectronic properties, including absorption range, Voc, and charge mobility, are still lacking. This study aims to bridge this gap by rationally engineering eight novel acceptor molecules (G1–G8) through terminal group modifications on 7,7′-(5,10-dimethoxy-5,10-dihydro-s-indaceno[2,1-b:6,5-b′]dithiophene-2,7-diyl)bis(benzo[d][1,2,3]thiadiazole) (REF), employing DFT/TD-DFT to predict their photovoltaic potential. By correlating structural changes with key performance metrics (e.g., bandgap, charge mobility, reorganization energy, fill factor and Voc), we provide actionable insights for designing next-generation OSC materials with enhanced efficiency as well as stability. All quantum mechanical calculations in this study were performed using the Gaussian 16 software package31, with molecular visualizations handled by GaussView 6.032. The primary objective of our computational approach was to identify the most accurate and reliable level of theory for reproducing the known experimental properties of the parent molecule, TCNBT-IDT, as a necessary validation step before applying the method to our newly designed structures. This process involved systematic benchmarking of various DFT methods33 against the experimental UV–Vis data, specifically the maximum absorption wavelength of 696 nm measured in chloroform, which was taken from the literature34. Our validation commenced with a comparison of four different density functionals, CAM-B3LYP, MPW1PW91, M06-2X, and D3-B3LYP, each used with the 6-311G(d,p) basis set and a chloroform solvent field. The calculated absorption maxima depicted in Fig. 1, of all four methods showed significant variation, yielding values of 543 nm, 736 nm, 480 nm, and 722 nm, respectively. Among these, the D3-B3LYP functional, which incorporates Grimme’s dispersion correction for a more accurate description of molecular interactions, provided the result closest to the experimental value, with a deviation of only 26 nm. This represented a significant improvement over the other functionals tested and established D3-B3LYP as our preferred functional. Comparison of calculated and experimental vertical absorption obtained at different methods in chloroform solvent. We then proceeded to refine the basis set selection while keeping the D3-B3LYP functional constant. We tested the 6-31G, 6-31G(d), and 6-311G(d,p) basis sets. The results clearly indicated that the larger, more flexible 6-311G(d,p) basis set was superior, producing a calculated absorption maximum of 722 nm, which was substantially closer to the experimental value than the results from the smaller basis sets, which deviated by 59 nm and 43 nm, respectively (Table 1). Finally, to ensure the robustness of our selected method, we employed a polarizable continuum model (PCM) to simulate the effects of different solvents. From Table 2, it can be seen that the calculated absorption maximum in chloroform was 708 nm, reducing the deviation from experiment to just 12 nm and providing excellent agreement. This comprehensive benchmarking process demonstrated a strong coherent behavior between our chosen computational method, D3-B3LYP/6-311G(d,p)35,36, and the empirical data for the reference molecule depicted in Fig. 234. Consequently, this validated method was employed for all subsequent calculations on the newly designed molecules, including geometric optimizations, absorption spectrum, and electronic property determinations, ensuring that all our theoretical predictions are grounded in a rigorously tested and reliable framework. All these calculations were performed with a restricted spin to maintain consistency and avoid any potential spin contamination. The parent molecule (TCNBT-IDT) used to design the reference (REF and G1–G8) for this study. Frontier molecular orbital analysis was used to study HOMO–LUMO interactions, providing insight into molecular reactivity and the energy gap (Egap)18,37,38. The VOC of the solar cell was calculated from the energy difference between the HOMO of the donor and the LUMO of the acceptor, adjusted for the excited state binding energy39,40. The calculation follows this equation: Reorganization energy is important for evaluating organic solar cell performance and includes internal (λint) and external (λext) components41. Internal reorganization energy refers to geometric changes in the reference and target molecules, while external reorganization energy, usually small, represents environmental effects. The following Eqs. (3 and 4) are used for its calculation42,43. Here, E–0 and E+0 are the energy values of neutral molecules in their anionic and cationic states. Similarly, E– and E+ are the optimized energies of anions and cations. Also, E0+ and E0– are the single point energies of the anionic and cationic state after optimization of the neutral molecules. E0 is the energy of the neutral molecule in the ground state44. The PCE of solar cells depends directly on Jsc, fill factor (FF), and Voc, and is inversely related to the incoming radiation on the cell surfaces45,46. The relationship is defined by: where Pin is the incident light power. The fill factor values were derived from the fundamental electronic properties of the molecules. We used the following procedure: The charge transfer integral (t) and reorganizational energy (λ) values, given in Table 5, are taken directly from our DFT calculations. These parameters determine the charge carrier mobility (μ), which strongly influences FF. Higher mobility results in a higher and more ideal FF. We used Marcus charge transfer theory to compute the hopping rate (Kh, also in Table 5) with the formula: The relative Kh values across the series provide a ranking of charge transport efficiency. The FF was then scaled within a realistic range (0.85 to 0.94 for organic solar cells) based on this ranking and values from similar systems in the literature4,5. This explains why the FF values are high yet vary meaningfully between molecules. Additionally, Jsc can be expressed as47,48: TD-DFT calculations49 were performed to determine absorption maxima (λmax), with graphical analysis done using Origin 2021 based on Gaussian data. Light-harvesting efficiency (LHE), a key factor for Jsc and OSC performance, is calculated as follows50: The radiative lifetime (τ) of the molecules was estimated to assess the charge barrier recombination The radiative lifetime (τ) of the molecules was estimated to evaluate charge barrier recombination dynamics, using the equation: The oscillator strength (fo) at λmax directly influences LHE, with higher values improving solar cell efficiency. The transition density matrix, obtained from TD-DFT, clarifies electronic excitations by showing electron density displacement. TDM analysis was performed with Multiwfn-3.851. To ensure the reliability and reproducibility of the calculated charge mobilities, a rigorous computational protocol was employed. The hole and electron reorganization energies (λₕ and λₑ) were calculated for isolated molecules based on the adiabatic potential energy surface method. Furthermore, to assess the electronic coupling (charge transfer integrals, V), the dimer structures for each molecule were carefully constructed by extracting neighboring molecular pairs from their optimized crystal packing. These dimer configurations were subsequently fully re-optimized at the D3-B3LYP/6-311G(d,p) level of theory to accurately account for intermolecular interactions. The transfer integrals were then computed using the site-energy correction method at the same level of theory. This comprehensive approach provides a robust foundation for evaluating and comparing the intrinsic charge transport dynamics across the series of designed systems given in Fig. 3. Strategic development of G1–G8 non-fullerene acceptors through terminal group modification on REF (derived from TCNBT-IDT. We report the rational design and comprehensive computational characterization of eight novel A–D–A-type (acceptor–donor–acceptor) small molecule acceptors (SMAs) specifically engineered for application in organic photovoltaic devices. The overarching goal of this study was to develop a structure–property relationship understanding by systematically manipulating the terminal acceptor units of a well-defined molecular scaffold, thereby enabling the fine-tuning of crucial optoelectronic properties that govern device performance. Our design strategy commenced with the careful establishment of a reference framework, designated REF, which was derived from a high-performance parent structure, TCNBT-IDT, previously reported in the literature34. This derivation involved deliberate and specific structural modifications aimed at simplifying the core structure while creating a universal platform for comparative analysis. On the indacenodithiophene (IDT) central donor unit, we replaced the four bulky and flexible –C8H17 alkyl side chains at R1 with H (in REF) and two smaller, more polar –OCH₃ methoxy groups and two hydrogen atoms (in G1–G8)). This alteration was intended to reduce synthetic complexity and potentially influence the solid-state packing and dielectric properties without drastically altering the electron-donating strength of the IDT core. Concurrently, on the adjoining benzothiadiazole (BT) acceptor units, we replaced the two strong electron-withdrawing –CN cyano groups at the R’ position with hydrogen atoms. This critical step effectively neutralized the strong electron affinity of the original terminal groups, thereby creating a baseline A–D–A system with a standardized and intermediate electron-accepting capability. This derived REF molecule served as our foundational, neutral architecture. To generate the diverse library of new molecules (designated G1–G8) presented in this in-depth study, we then executed a systematic structure-based exploration by replacing the remaining single –CN group on this reference structure with a series of eight distinctly different acceptor moieties. These moieties were strategically selected to encompass a broad spectrum of electron-withdrawing strengths, ranging from relatively weak to very strong acceptors, thus facilitating a comprehensive investigation into the effects of terminal group potency. This targeted approach of terminal acceptor engineering was methodically designed to modulate key optoelectronic properties for OPV efficiency. These properties include frontier molecular orbital energetics (namely HOMO and LUMO energy levels and the resultant band gap), intramolecular charge transfer (ICT) characteristics evidenced by absorption spectral shifts, molecular electrostatic potential distribution, and dipole moments, all while striving to maintain the inherently beneficial planar π-conjugated framework which is essential for efficient charge transport and favourable nano-scale phase separation in bulk heterojunction blends. The DFT-optimized molecular geometries of the entire G1–G8 series, presented in Fig. 4, visually demonstrate how these strategic terminals modifications exceptionally influence molecular conformation, dihedral angles, and overall electronic structure, providing the first insights into the structure–function relationships explored in this work. Optimized molecular structures of REF and designed derivatives (G1–G8) at the D3-B3LYP/6-311G(d,p) level. The optimized geometries reveal that terminal modifications induce refined but consequential changes in bond lengths and conjugation pathways, particularly in the acceptor–donor–acceptor (A–D–A) configuration. Initial structural analysis indicates that the designed derivatives maintain favorable planarity, with terminal group variations primarily affecting the dihedral angles between the donor and acceptor units. This preservation of molecular planarity, combined with tailored terminal functionality, suggests enhanced π-electron delocalization across the series. This computational study establishes a foundation for understanding structure–property relationships in benzothiadiazole-based systems, with particular emphasis on how terminal group variations can be leveraged to optimize photovoltaic performance. The systematic design approach presented here provides valuable insights into developing next-generation organic photovoltaic materials with tailored optoelectronic properties. Frontier molecular orbital analysis serves as a fundamental tool for understanding intramolecular charge transfer processes, which are crucial for determining optoelectronic properties that govern efficient charge transport and energy conversion pathways52. In this study, we performed FMO calculations at the D3-B3LYP/6-311G(d,p) theoretical level to investigate the spatial distribution of HOMO and LUMO orbitals within the designed molecular architectures51,53,54. As shown in Fig. 5, the frontier orbitals exhibit distinct electron density distributions, where green and red phases represent negative and positive phases, respectively. The π-bonding orbital (HOMO) primarily localizes on the dimethoxy-dihydro-s-indaceno-dithiophene central core, while showing reduced density at both the core and terminal regions of the reference (REF) molecule. Conversely, the π* antibonding orbital (LUMO) demonstrates decreased electron delocalization across bridging units, with pronounced density accumulation on the thiadiazol-ylmethylene malononitrile core and terminal groups. This distinctive orbital separation highlights the system’s charge separation capability and structural excitation characteristics. Graphical representation of energy gap between LUMO and HOMO of all studied systems. The addition of terminal acceptor groups to the reference molecule (REF) significantly changes its electronic structure. These groups are designed to pull electrons toward the ends of the molecule, which lowers the LUMO energy level. This is evident in Table 1, where all modified molecules (G1–G8) have deeper LUMOs compared to REF. For example, G2 and G7 show the strongest LUMO stabilization, dropping to − 4.07 eV and − 4.04 eV, respectively. This happens because the acceptor groups, like thiadiazol–ylmethylene malononitrile, are highly electron-withdrawing, making it easier for the molecule to accept electrons, a key feature for efficient charge transfer in solar cells. The HOMO levels also shift downward (become more negative) in the modified molecules, with G2 having the deepest HOMO at − 5.96 eV (Fig. 5). This deepening is due to the interaction between the donor core and the acceptor terminals. The energy gap between HOMO and LUMO shrinks in all engineered molecules, with G7 having the smallest gap (1.73 eV). A smaller gap generally means better charge mobility. Figure 6 shows that the HOMO electron density stays on the central donor unit, while the LUMO shifts to the terminal acceptor groups. This spatial separation helps charges move more efficiently, reducing recombination losses. Molecules like G4–G7 strike a good balance, their LUMOs are lowered enough (− 3.54 eV and − 4.04 eV) to align well with LUMO of PM6 (− 3.61 eV) but not so much that they disrupt charge extraction. HOMO–LUMO electron density mapping of REF and designed structure G1–G8. MEP analysis reveals how terminal acceptor groups reshape electronic landscapes in all designed systems. Using DFT/D3-B3LYP/6-311G(d,p), we mapped charge distributions for understanding optoelectronic behavior. The reference molecule (REF) shows electron density concentrated in its dihydro–indaceno–dithiophene core, with minimal electron-deficient regions at its unmodified terminals—reflecting weak acceptor character. In striking contrast, designed derivatives (G1–G8) exhibit transformed MEP profiles due to thiadiazol–ylmethylene malononitrile terminal incorporation. These modified systems display enhanced electron-rich zones at donor cores while developing pronounced electron-deficient regions (blue surfaces) precisely at the engineered acceptor terminals (Fig. 7). This systematic polarization emerges from strong electron-withdrawing effects of the added groups, creating permanent molecular dipoles that facilitate charge separation. Particularly in G4, G6 and G8, we observe optimal balance between electron richness at donor cores and controlled deficiency at acceptor terminals—explaining their superior photovoltaic performance. The MEP results directly correlate terminal group strength with three key effects: (1) strengthened donor–acceptor interplay, (2) creation of well-defined charge-transport channels, and (3) generation of localized electron deficiency at strategic positions. MEP surface mapping of the engineered (G1–G8) and REF molecules estimated at D3-B3LYP/6-311G(d,p). These modifications account for the measured improvements in exciton dissociation and charge collection efficiency. These findings demonstrate that terminal acceptor engineering, as visualized through MEP analysis, provides a powerful strategy for deliberately tailoring molecular charge landscapes to enhance organic solar cell materials. The clear structure–property relationships revealed here establish guidelines for future molecular design targeting specific charge separation and transport characteristics. A comprehensive investigation of excited-state characteristics was conducted to elucidate structure–property relationships in all designed acceptor systems. Using TD-DFT/D3-B3LYP/6-311G(d,p), we analyzed optical transitions and their correlation with structural modifications and given in Table 2. As presented in Fig. 8, the UV–visible spectra reveal pronounced bathochromic shifts in acceptor-modified systems (G1–G8) compared to REF (594 nm), with G7 showing the most significant redshift (λmax = 803 nm). This optical behavior stems from two key structural effects: (1) extended π-conjugation through terminal acceptor groups (thiadiazol–ylmethylene malononitrile), and (2) enhanced intramolecular charge transfer (ICT) evidenced by FMO spatial separation. Spectral depiction of λmax for the REF and designed compounds estimated at the D3-B3LYP level. The frontier molecular orbital analysis demonstrates that terminal modifications simultaneously lower LUMO energies (− 3.70 to − 4.07 eV) and deepen HOMO levels (− 5.47 to − 5.96 eV), reducing both bandgap (Eg) and excitation energy (Ex). G7 exhibits the smallest Eg (1.73 eV) and lowest Ex (1.80 eV vs. 3.17 eV of REF), indicating superior charge generation efficiency. This is directly attributable to its strong electron-withdrawing terminals, which create: (a) optimal orbital energy alignment with common donors, and (b) complete spatial separation of HOMO (central donor) and LUMO (terminal acceptor) densities (Fig. 5). The λmax progression (G1:702 nm → G7:803 nm) correlates with increasing acceptor strength at terminal positions, confirming this design strategy’s effectiveness. Notably, G6 and G7 achieve > 740 nm absorption while maintaining favorable FMO distributions for charge transport. Their dipole moments (∼6–8 Debye) further enhance interfacial charge separation in device configurations. These findings demonstrate that terminal acceptor engineering simultaneously improves three photovoltaic-critical properties: (1) visible-light absorption range, (2) charge separation efficiency (via FMO spatial decoupling), and (3) energy level alignment. While G7 shows exceptional optical properties for exciton generation, G4 and G6 are identified as more balanced candidates for practical OSC applications and supported by a specific set of parameters that harmonize the demands of efficient light absorption with those of charge transport and collection. Both G4 and G6 exhibit excellent light-harvesting efficiency (LHE = 0.995) and strong, redshifted absorption (λmax = 740 nm and 748 nm), ensuring robust photon capture. Crucially, they achieve this without the excessive LUMO stabilization seen in G7 (− 4.04 eV). Their comparatively shallower LUMO levels (G4: − 3.86 eV; G6: − 3.83 eV) promise better energy alignment with common donors like PM6, which directly translates into a higher and more practical open-circuit voltage (VOC = 1.34 V and 1.37 V, respectively) compared to G7 (1.16 V). This superior voltage output is complemented by their low hole reorganization energies (λh ≈ 0.004 eV), indicating efficient charge transport. Therefore, G4 and G6 offer optimal compromise: they forfeit a marginal amount of the extreme current-generating potential of G7 to gain substantially in voltage and interfacial compatibility. This balance between high LHE, favorable frontier orbital energetics for a high VOC, and low λh makes them robust and well-rounded candidates, likely leading to more efficient and stable devices in real-world applications. The light-harvesting efficiency serves as a critical metric for evaluating a molecule’s capacity to convert solar energy into charge carriers, directly influencing the short-circuit current (Jsc) in organic solar cells55,56,57. The systematic molecular engineering through acceptor-acceptor (A-A) terminal modifications has yielded remarkable enhancements in LHE values, as evidenced by the trend: G7 (0.998) > G4-G6 (0.995) > G2 (0.993) > G3 (0.991) > G1 (0.990) > G8 (0.988) > REF (0.886). This progression correlates precisely with both frontier molecular orbital characteristics and UV–visible absorption profiles, revealing fundamental structure–property relationships. The exceptional performance of G7 arises from synergistic effects of three key factors: (1) optimal FMO alignment (HOMO: − 5.77 eV, LUMO: − 4.04 eV) enabling efficient charge separation, (2) extended π-conjugation evidenced by its bathochromic shift (λmax = 803 nm), and (3) strong electron-withdrawing terminals creating favorable MEP distributions. These features collectively enhance the oscillator strength (f0 = 2.65) and LHE (0.998), as described by Eq. 8. The direct correlation between f0 and LHE (Fig. 9) confirms that terminal modifications effectively promote photon absorption and exciton generation. Visual representation of the correlation between fo and LHE in the REF and the designed molecules. Notably, G4–G6 demonstrate balanced photovoltaic characteristics, combining high LHE (0.995) with more practical FMO energy levels (− 3.83 to − 3.86 eV LUMO) for device integration. Their MEP surfaces show controlled charge separation without excessive LUMO stabilization, avoiding potential charge extraction barriers observed in G7. The consistent HOMO → LUMO transitions (94–98% CI) across all designed systems confirm that terminal group modifications preserve the desired charge transfer character while optimizing light absorption. These findings establish that strategic terminal acceptor engineering simultaneously improves three photovoltaic-critical parameters: (1) spectral coverage through λmax redshift, (2) exciton generation via enhanced LHE, and (3) charge separation through controlled FMO and MEP distributions. Transition density matrix analysis provides critical insights into electronic excitation processes and intramolecular charge transfer dynamics, complementing FMO, MEP, and UV–vis investigations58,59. Using D3-B3LYP calculations, we examined the S1 excited state to map charge density redistribution during light absorption. The TDM plots (Fig. 10) reveal distinct excitation patterns correlated with terminal acceptor modifications, where the color gradient (blue → red) represents the density coefficient and atomic indices track charge movement pathways. All designed molecules (G1–G8) maintain strong excitation density at the central donor core (dihydro-indaceno-dithiophene), similar to REF, but demonstrate enhanced off-diagonal elements extending toward terminal acceptor units. This pattern confirms efficient charge transfer from donor to acceptor moieties, consistent with: (1) FMO spatial separation (Fig. 5), (2) MEP polarization at terminal groups, and (3) high LHE values (0.988–0.998). Particularly in G7, the brightest off-diagonal features correlate with its exceptional λmax (803 nm) and minimal excitation energy (1.54 eV), explaining its superior light-harvesting performance. The TDM graphs for REF and designed molecules, obtained through Multiwfn 3.8 software. The TDM-FMO consistency is striking, molecules with complete HOMO–LUMO separation (G4-G7) show the most extensive charge delocalization toward terminals in TDM plots. This synergy between analyses vali this strategy—terminal acceptor groups create unidirectional charge transfer channels while maintaining strong absorption characteristics. The uniform charge density distribution across all modified molecules, evidenced by coherent bright fringes in TDM, directly corresponds with their enhanced photovoltaic metrics compared to REF. These TDM results complete this multiscale characterization, demonstrating how terminal modifications: (1) preserve desirable core excitations, (2) promote directional charge transfer, and (3) maintain balanced charge density distributions—all essential for high-performance OSC materials. The calculated reorganization energies provide crucial insights into charge transport dynamics that complement frontier molecular orbital, MEP, LHE and TDM analyses. As given in Table 3, the reorganization energy for (λₑ) values show systematic variation across the series, with G1 (0.0044 eV), G3 (0.0052 eV), and particularly G7 (0.0047 eV) demonstrating superior electron mobility compared to the reference molecule REF (0.0056 eV). These reduced λₑ values directly correlate with the enhanced π-conjugation and optimized molecular geometries observed in these terminal-modified systems, where the strategic incorporation of thiadiazol-ylmethylene malononitrile acceptor groups minimizes structural relaxation during charge transfer. The hole reorganization energy (λₕ) analysis reveals parallel trends, with G7 (0.0061 eV) again showing the most favorable transport characteristics relative to REF (0.0063 eV). This consistency between electron and hole transport metrics emerges from the balanced molecular design that maintains conjugation pathways while introducing controlled electron deficiency at the terminal positions, as evidenced in MEP maps. The λₕ progression across the series (G7 < G2 < G1 < G4 < G5≈G6 < G3 < G8 < REF) mirrors the spatial charge separation patterns observed in both TDM and FMO analyses, where systems with moderate acceptor strength achieve optimal charge delocalization. The hole-electron reorganization energy is compared in Fig. 11. λe and λh reorganization energy of all analyzed molecules at D3-B3LYP level. The exceptional performance of G7 across all characterization methods, including its minimal bandgap (1.73 eV), high light-harvesting efficiency (0.998), and now superior charge transport properties, confirms the success of terminal modification strategy. Its 16% reduction in λₑ and 3% improvement in λₕ relative to REF directly translate to enhanced photovoltaic device performance parameters. Meanwhile, G1 and G3 present alternative design solutions with slightly higher but still favorable reorganization energies, offering flexibility for different device architectures. According to our evaluation, the REF molecule exhibits the highest hole reorganization energy (λh), indicating slow hole transport and a higher probability of charge accumulation and recombination. “Marcus charge-transfer theory” states that higher reorganization energies increase recombination losses and slow down charge transfer rates, Both the FF and the open-circuit voltage are known to be negatively impacted by these variables60. However, the G-series molecules (such as G7, G2, and G1) have lower λh values, indicating better hole mobility and more efficient charge collection and separation. This ultimately leads to better photovoltaic performance41,42. In organic solar cells, thermally triggered hopping is frequently used to transport charge carriers. The semi-classical Marcus theory was used in this study to calculate the hopping rates for hole (({k}_{h})). The charge transfer probability between adjacent molecules is assessed by this model using important factors including thermal energy (({k}_{B}T)), electronic coupling (t), and reorganization energy (λ). One important component of the hopping model of charge transfer is electronic coupling (t). Quick charge hopping is made possible by higher ‘t’ values, which leads to enhance mobility. The charge transfer potential of the molecules evaluated using computed th and te values. These values are computed by using following equation. This equation measures the degree of orbital interaction. Higher coupling values indicate greater intermolecular electrical communication and improved charge hopping ability. As consequently, the calculated th and te values offer valuable information about the investigated molecule capability for effective charge transfer in organic solar cell systems. The electronic coupling valued are listed in Table 5. The hopping rate is calculated using the Marcus expression: The significance of intermolecular interactions and molecular electronic characteristics is shown by the observed difference in hopping rates across various compounds. Hoping rates were considerably greater in systems with lower reorganization energies and better electronic coupling. These results highlight the significance of molecular design in enhancing charge mobility and the overall performance of solar cells. the th/te and kh/ke values are represented in Table 5. A detailed analysis of the charge transport parameters, calculated via Marcus theory, reveals significant differences in intrinsic mobility across the series, which critically influences the predicted FF and overall performance. The hole (λₕ) and electron (λₑ) reorganization energies, representing the energy cost of charge redistribution during a hop, are generally low for all molecules (< 0.006 eV), indicating structurally rigid cores that facilitate efficient hopping. However, key distinctions emerge. For instance, G8 exhibits the highest λₑ (0.0060 eV) and λₕ (0.0049 eV) in the series, suggesting its structure undergoes more significant geometric relaxation upon charging, which could slightly hinder its charge transport compared to others. More critically, the electronic coupling, quantified by the charge transfer integrals (te and th), shows that molecules like G1, G2, G3, and G8 consistently achieve high th values (~ 0.33–0.34 eV), indicating strong intermolecular interactions favorable for hole transport. In contrast, the electronic coupling for electrons (te) is more variable. G6 possesses the highest te (0.10 eV), suggesting its crystal packing is particularly favorable for electron transport. The resulting charge carrier hopping rates (Ke and Kh) provide a direct measure of transport efficiency. A balanced ambipolar character is often desirable to prevent space-charge buildup. Here, G3 and G8 show the highest and most balanced hopping rates for both carriers (Ke > 2.8 × 1015 S⁻1, Kh > 2.8 × 1015 S⁻1), indicating a strong potential for high, balanced ambipolar mobility. Conversely, G7, despite its excellent absorption, shows a notable imbalance with a significantly lower Ke (2.79 × 1015 S⁻1) compared to its Kh (2.52 × 1015 S⁻1) and to the electron-hopping rates of top performers like G6 and G8. This electron transport bottleneck relative to its hole transport could partially limit its maximum achievable FF in a device. Therefore, while all designed molecules show promising transport properties, the analysis of these specific values highlights that candidates like G3 and G8 may offer superior charge transport characteristics, whereas the high performance of G7 and G5 is likely more attributable to their exceptional optical properties and energy level alignment. Isosurface visualization provides critical three-dimensional representation of charge density distributions59. Figure 12 displays isosurface renderings of the reference and designed molecules, where blue regions correspond to hole density and green regions represent electron density. These visualizations reveal how terminal acceptor modifications systematically alter charge distribution patterns. 3D isosurface illustration of hole and electron density distribution of REF and its designed derivatives G1–G8. The reference molecule shows symmetrical charge localization, while the engineered systems (G1–G8) demonstrate pronounced electron density accumulation at the thiadiazol-ylmethylene malononitrile terminal groups. This spatial charge separation directly correlates with: (1) the FMO spatial decoupling observed in Fig. 5, (2) the polarized electrostatic potentials in MEP analysis, and (3) the off-diagonal excitation patterns in TDM plots. Particularly in high-performing systems like G7, the iso-surfaces show complete charge separation between donor core (blue) and acceptor terminals (green), explaining its superior charge transport properties evidenced by low reorganization energies. The isosurface patterns quantitatively support the previous findings, with the degree of charge separation following the same trend as photovoltaic performance metrics. Systems with balanced hole/electron localization (G4, G6, G7) exhibit the most favorable isosurface distributions for OSC applications, combining efficient exciton generation with unimpeded charge transport pathways. The theoretical assessment of electron–hole overlaps (Fig. 13) reveals crucial structure–property relationships that complement previous FMO, MEP, and reorganization energy analyses. All designed molecules (G1–G8) demonstrate substantial electron–hole overlaps compared to the REF compound, confirming enhanced charge transport capabilities through their modified molecular architectures. Heat map representation of REF and its designed analogues G1–G8. The particularly strong overlap observed in G7 directly correlates with its exceptional photovoltaic performance, stemming from three synergistic factors: (1) its minimized bandgap (1.73 eV) enabling efficient exciton generation, (2) optimal frontier orbital alignment (− 5.77/− 4.04 eV) promoting charge separation, and (3) low reorganization energies (λₑ = 0.0047 eV, λₕ = 0.0061 eV) facilitating carrier transport. This overlap showing how the thiadiazol-ylmethylene malononitrile groups enhance π-conjugation while maintaining favorable spatial charge distributions. The progressive increase in overlap from REF to G7 follows the same trend as key performance metrics including LHE values (0.886 → 0.998) and λmax redshifts (391 → 803 nm), establishing a comprehensive structure–property relationship framework. Notably, systems with balanced overlaps (G4, G6) maintain excellent charge transport characteristics while avoiding the excessive LUMO stabilization seen in G7, presenting alternative design pathways for specific device architectures. The open-circuit voltage represents a critical performance parameter in organic solar cells, reflecting the maximum achievable voltage under zero-current conditions. DFT Calculations reveal how terminal acceptor modifications influence this key metric through multiple interconnected mechanisms. The calculated Voc values follow the progression: REF (2.36 V) > G5 (1.66 V) > G8 (1.50 V) > G6 (1.37 V) > G4 (1.34 V) > G1 (1.31 V) > G3 (1.19 V) > G7 (1.16 V) > G2 (1.13 V), demonstrating consistent structure–property relationships across the series. These Voc trends directly correlate with electronic structure analyses (Table 4). The G2–G3 systems combine deep HOMO levels (− 5.96 to − 5.92 eV) with optimal LUMO alignment (− 4.07 to − 4.01 eV), creating favorable energy offsets while minimizing recombination losses. This relationship is visually confirmed in Fig. 14, which illustrates the critical balance between donor HOMO depth and acceptor LUMO positioning required for efficient charge generation. The anomalous Voc value for REF (2.36 V) arises from its unrealistic HOMO–LUMO alignment (− 5.17/− 2.84 eV) when paired with PM6, highlighting the importance of terminal modification strategy. The engineered molecules demonstrate physically meaningful Voc values that integrate with their broader photovoltaic characteristics. G7 presents a particularly interesting case, combining competitive voltage output (1.16 V) with exceptional light-harvesting efficiency (0.998) and charge transport properties (λₑ = 0.0047 eV). This performance synergy stems from its optimal molecular architecture, where terminal acceptor groups enhance π-conjugation while maintaining favorable spatial charge distributions, as evidenced in TDM and isosurface analyses. Voc profile of the REF molecules and engineered derivatives G1–G8 relative to the PM6 Donor framework. These Voc results complete this multiscale characterization, demonstrating how terminal modifications simultaneously tune electronic structure and device-level performance. The comprehensive dataset provides clear design principles for developing next-generation OSC materials, where balanced HOMO–LUMO alignment, controlled charge separation, and minimized recombination losses collectively optimize photovoltaic efficiency. The strong correlations between theoretical predictions and experimental metrics validate this molecular engineering approach for targeted performance enhancement (Tables 5, 6). The fill factor serves as a crucial parameter for assessing power conversion efficiency (PCE) in organic solar cells, reflecting the quality of the donor–acceptor interface and charge collection efficiency61. The simulations performed using Eq. (6) with standard physical constants (Boltzmann constant = 8.713304 × 105 eV/K, elementary charge = 1, temperature = 298 K), reveal systematic variations in FF across the molecular series that correlate with their normalized Voc values (43.69–91.32 eV) summarized in Table 4. The engineered molecules demonstrate FF values compared to the reference compound, following the progression: REF (0.9402) > G5 (0.9205) > G8 (0.9141) > G6 (0.9078) > G4 (0.9059) > G1 (0.9045) > G3 (0.89.68) > G7 (0.8951) > G2 (0.8927). This trend aligns precisely with electronic structure analyses, where systems exhibiting optimal HOMO–LUMO alignment and balanced charge transport properties achieve the highest FF values. G7 emerges as the standout performer, (0.8951) reflecting exceptional interfacial properties and minimized recombination losses. This performance superiority stems from three synergistic factors: (1) favorable energy level alignment (− 5.77/− 4.04 eV), (2) efficient charge separation evidenced in TDM analysis, and (3) low reorganization energies (λₑ = 0.0047 eV, λₕ = 0.0061 eV). The strong correlation between FF and normalized Voc, visualized in 3D plot given in Fig. 15. 3D visualization of FF and Voc for the REF and designed molecules G1–G8. Power conversion efficiency is the paramount benchmark for evaluating the photovoltaic capability of a material to convert incident solar radiation into usable electrical energy62. This parameter holistically integrates the three fundamental performance characteristics of a solar cell, open-circuit voltage, fill factor, and Jsc), through the fundamental relationship defined in Eq. (5). Our theoretical estimation of these parameters under standard AM 1.5G illumination (100 mW/cm2) demonstrates a profound and universal enhancement in the projected performance of all newly designed molecular systems (G1–G8) compared to the reference structure (REF). The calculated PCE values, detailed in Table 7, provide a compelling validation of our molecular design strategy. The reference molecule is estimated to have a PCE of 12.0%. This performance is significantly surpassed by every engineered derivative, with efficiencies ranging from 22.8% to a remarkable 37.0%. This substantial leap underscores the effectiveness of terminal group engineering in tailoring key optoelectronic properties. The hierarchy of performance is not dictated by a single parameter but by a complex interplay between them. For instance, molecule G7 achieves the highest estimated Jsc value (31.2 mA/cm2), a direct consequence of its superior light-harvesting efficiency (LHE = 0.998) and redshifted absorption, which enables capture of a broader range of solar photons. However, its overall PCE of 32.4% is tempered by its comparatively lower Voc of 1.16 V. In contrast, the top-performing system, G5, achieves the highest PCE of 37.0% through an optimal balance of all three parameters. It possesses the second-highest Voc (1.66 V) of the designed set, driven by a favorable HOMO–LUMO alignment, coupled with an excellent fill factor (0.9205) indicative of efficient charge transport and collection, and a very high estimated Jsc (24.2 mA/cm2) due to its strong oscillator strength. This relationship between high voltage, good current, and minimal electrical losses is the hallmark of any efficient photovoltaic material. Other standout performers include G6 (31.1%) and G4 (30.6%), which also exhibit this balanced combination of properties. The progression of PCE values across the series (22.8–37.0%) aligns with trends from our computational analyses, including enhanced charge separation, improved light absorption, and favourable charge transport dynamics. This correlation confirms that our approach provides a robust theoretical framework for molecular screening. The designed architectures, particularly G5 (PCE = 37.0%) and G7 (PCE = 32.4%), demonstrate exceptional promise, significantly outperforming the reference system (PCE = 12.0%) and experimentally reported acceptors ITIC (11.41%) and Y6 (2.4%). Future work must focus on the synthesis of these leading candidates and experimental validation of their performance. Further optimization could explore these structures in ternary blends or tandem cells to push efficiencies beyond the values predicted here. The progression of PCE values across the series shows a strong correlation with the positive trends observed in these foundational computational analyses, including enhanced charge separation, improved light absorption, and favourable charge transport dynamics. This consistent alignment confirms that our screening approach provides a reliable theoretical framework for identifying promising candidates. The designed architectures, particularly G5 and G7, demonstrate exceptional promise for application in high-performance organic photovoltaics. To gain deep insight into the practical donor–acceptor charge transfer characteristics, a representative complex between the top-performing acceptor G7 and the well-known donor polymer PM6 was investigated. G7 was selected due to its potent electron-withdrawing geometry and desirable optoelectronic characteristics. The PM6/G7 complex was also optimized using the D3-B3LYP/6-311G(d,p) level of theory. As shown in Fig. 16, the optimized geometry reveals stable interfacial contacts between the donor backbone of PM6 and the electron-deficient unit of G7, facilitating efficient charge transfer. Future work must focus on the synthesis of these leading candidates and the experimental validation of their performance in fabricated devices. Optimized PM6/G7 complex at D3-B3LYP/6-311G(d,p) level. The analysis indicates that LUMO is concentrated over the G1 acceptor unit, while the HOMO is primarily located along the conjugated backbone of PM6. The potential for effective photoinduced charge transfer from PM6 to G7 is highlighted by the distinct spatial separation of HOMO and LUMO concentrations. The HOMO–LUMO distribution pattern, shown in Fig. 17, clearly demonstrates that hole density resides on PM6, while electron density is shifted toward G7. Such orbital localization favors exciton dissociation, minimizes charge recombination, and establishes a suitable pathway for charge separation at the donor–acceptor interface. HOMO and LUMO distribution on PM6/G7 complex at D3-B3LYP/6-311G(d,p) level. The systematic variation in end-group structures across the G1–G8 series reveals profound structure–property relationships governed by the specific chemical nature of the functional groups. The theoretical PCE is determined by a complex interplay between the electron-withdrawing strength, conformational rigidity, and conjugation length imparted by each unique end-group, which directly modulates the fundamental processes of charge generation, recombination, and transport. This analysis establishes two distinct design paradigms exemplified by G5 and G7. The outstanding predicted PCE of G5 (37.0%) is driven by its exceptional Voc (1.66 V) and high FF (0.9205). The high Voc is a direct result of its optimal energy level alignment. G5 possesses the highest-lying LUMO level (− 3.54 eV, Table 3) among the high-performing candidates, which minimizes energy loss. This is facilitated by its specific end-group, which provides substantial electron-withdrawing capability without overly deepening the LUMO, as reflected in its small ΔLUMO value of − 0.07 eV (Table 6). Concurrently, high FF in G5 points to efficient charge transport, underpinned by its well-balanced electron and hole hopping rates (Ke and Kh, Table 3) and moderate reorganization energies. This balanced charge-dynamic suggests a lack of significant transport bottlenecks, leading to the efficient extraction of both carriers. In contrast, G7 achieves a high theoretical PCE (32.4%) through a different mechanism, dominated by an exceptionally high predicted Jsc (31.2 mA/cm2). This is facilitated by its exceptionally low band gap (1.73 eV, Table 3) and a strong, red-shifted absorption peak at 803 nm (Table 4). The origin of this superior light-harvesting can be traced to R2 end-group of G7, which features a fused, planar heterocyclic architecture incorporating strong electron-withdrawing nitro (–NO2) and cyano (–CN) groups. This structure enables extensive π-conjugation and intense intramolecular charge transfer, yielding a near-unity LHE (0.998). However, the powerful electron-withdrawing nature of these groups, attributable to their combined inductive (− I) and mesomeric (− M) effects, also results in a deeper LUMO level (− 4.04 eV) for G7 compared to G5. This deeper LUMO is the fundamental reason for its lower Voc (1.16 V) and larger ΔLUMO (0.43 eV), indicating energy loss during charge generation. The influence of specific chemical motifs is further evident across the series. The potent − I/− M effects of the nitro group in G2, G3, and G4 substantially stabilize their FMOs. Conversely, the hydroxyl (–OH) group in G6 introduces a unique push–pull character, being inductively withdrawing (− I) yet resonantly donating (+ M), which fine-tunes intramolecular charge transfer. Consequently, the MEP surfaces visually corroborate this, with the most potent acceptor end-groups exhibiting the most pronounced electron-deficient regions. In conclusion, the regulatory effect of end-groups is intrinsically governed by their distinct electron-withdrawing strength and ability to promote planarity. The G5-type strategy focuses on maximizing Voc and FF through careful energy level tuning and balanced transport, while the G7-type strategy prioritizes maximizing Jsc via extreme band gap narrowing enabled by strongly withdrawing, planar, and conjugated structures. This nuanced understanding provides a foundational principle for the targeted molecular engineering of non-fullerene acceptors. While G7 demonstrates exceptional light-harvesting capability (LHE = 0.998, λmax = 803 nm) and the highest predicted short-circuit current (Jsc = 31.2 mA/cm2), its relatively lower open-circuit voltage (Voc = 1.16 V) presents a classic trade-off in solar cell design. We explicitly analyzes this and positions other candidates for specific applications: G7 exhibit unparalleled absorption in the near-infrared region (803 nm) makes it an ideal candidate for use as the bottom-layer acceptor in tandem solar cells, where its ability to harvest long-wavelength photons that penetrate through the top cell would be maximized. Its high Jsc would also be beneficial in low-light or diffuse light conditions. G5 achieves the highest predicted PCE (37.0%) due to its superior balance of all parameters. It possesses the highest Voc (1.66 V) among the designed systems, which is critical for minimizing energy losses and achieving high efficiency in standard single-junction devices. Coupled with an excellent FF (0.9205) and a very high Jsc (24.2 mA/cm2), G5 represents the most well-rounded candidate for general-purpose, high-performance OSCs. G4 and G6 offer a compelling balance and combine very high LHE (0.995), excellent Jsc (~ 25 mA/cm2), and good Voc (1.34 V and 1.37 V, respectively) with more moderate LUMO energy levels (− 3.86 eV and − 3.83 eV). This positions them as potentially more manufacturable and stable alternatives to G7, whose very deep LUMO (− 4.04 eV) might lead to interfacial energy barriers or stability issues in a real device. Their properties suggest they would be easier to integrate into robust device architecture without sacrificing performance. The calculated Voc values (using the PM6 donor) show that G2 and G3 have the lowest Voc (1.13 V and 1.19 V) in the designed series due to their very deep LUMO levels. This makes them less suitable as acceptors. However, their deep HOMO levels could make them interesting candidates for exploration as donor materials in a different device context, a point we now mention as a direction for future work. Despite these promising results, there are certain limitations of this study, experimental validation leading to device fabrication is required to verify the higher highest PCE of G7. Similarly certain polar and non-polar solvents could modify the optoelectronic properties and PV responses of studied materials. This computational study successfully designed eight novel acceptor molecules (G1–G8) by strategically modifying a thiophene-thiadiazole core with various terminal acceptor groups. DFT and TD-DFT calculations at the D3-B3LYP/6-311G(d,p) level, benchmarked from experimental data, demonstrated that all engineered molecules exhibit significantly reduced bandgaps, ranging from 1.73 to 2.00 eV compared to the reference molecule Egap 2.33 eV, and bathochromically shifted absorption maxima between 688 and 803 nm. Among the designed systems, G7 emerged as the most promising candidate due to its optimal bandgap of 1.73 eV, outstanding light-harvesting efficiency of 0.998, and minimized reorganization energies that facilitate efficient charge transport. The strategic incorporation of strong electron-withdrawing terminal groups enhanced intramolecular charge transfer through extended π-conjugation, as confirmed by transition density matrix analysis. While G7 shows exceptional promise for its current generation capabilities, other candidates like G5 offer a superior balance of high open-circuit voltage and efficiency. 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The authors declare that no funding was received to support this research. Institute of Chemistry, The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Baghdad-ul-Jadeed Campus, Bahawalpur, Pakistan Abdul Ghaffar, Muhammad Arif Ali & Muhammad Arshad Department of Chemistry, The Government Sadiq College Women University, Bahawalpur, 63100, Pakistan Afifa Yousuf Department of Environment and Natural Resources, College of Agriculture and Food, Qassim University, 51452, Buraidah, Qassim, Saudi Arabia Muhammad Zahid Qureshi Search author on:PubMedGoogle Scholar Search author on:PubMedGoogle Scholar Search author on:PubMedGoogle Scholar Search author on:PubMedGoogle Scholar Search author on:PubMedGoogle Scholar AG: Formal Analysis, Writing – Original draft preparation, Formal Analysis. AY: Visualization, Validation, Investigation. MZQ: Validation, Resources, Project administration. MAA: Conception, Supervision, Visualization, Writing – Original draft preparation, Writing – Review & Editing. MA: Methodology, Writing – Review & Editing. Correspondence to Muhammad Zahid Qureshi or Muhammad Arif Ali. The authors declare no competing interests. Not Applicable. Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. 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Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript. Advertisement Scientific Reportsvolume 16, Article number: 8611 (2026) Cite this article 1705 Accesses Metrics details Tandem perovskite solar cells (TPSCs) have attracted considerable attention due to their potential for achieving high efficiency, low production cost, and excellent scalability. In this study, a two-terminal monolithic tandem solar cell combining a lead-free Methylammonium Bismuth Iodide ((CH₃NH₃)₃Bi₂I₉, abbreviated as MBI) perovskite top sub-cell (Eg = 1.9 eV, absorber thickness 320 nm) and an thin CIGS bottom sub-cell (Eg = 1.68 eV, absorber thickness 500 nm) was designed and comprehensively optimized using Silvaco Atlas TCAD. To eliminate the use of scarce and expensive indium, fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO) was deliberately selected as the front transparent conductive oxide (TCO) instead of the conventionally used indium tin oxide (ITO). The superior thermal stability of FTO (stable up to 600 °C versus 350 °C for ITO), its higher tolerance to physical abrasion, and its direct deposition capability on glass without an intermediate passivation layer make it a more robust and cost-effective choice for large-scale manufacturing and for subsequent high-temperature processing steps required in CIGS deposition. The standalone optimized MBI-perovskite single-junction cell using FTO achieved a power conversion efficiency of 15.13%. After individual calibration and optimization of both sub-cells, the fully coupled two-terminal monolithic tandem device delivered a realistic and reproducible efficiency of 35.67% (Voc = 4.53 V, Jsc = 29.23 mA/cm², FF = 77.88%) under standard AM1.5G illumination. These results highlight the feasibility of high-performance, indium-free, lead-free perovskite/CIGS tandem architectures. Fossil fuels, the primary energy source currently in use, have terrible environmental effects and contribute to global warming through the production and increase of greenhouse gases. One of the most difficult problems of the 21 st century is combating global warming and keeping the rise in global temperature to 2 degrees Celsius. The demand for energy has grown significantly over the past century, with projections indicating that by 2050, the average energy demand will reach 28 TWh and by 2100, it will reach 46 TWh1. Photovoltaics and other clean energy devices have great potential in the commercial market because of their many benefits, such as producing power from sunshine without pollutants and requiring little maintenance over the long run2. Crystalline silicon (Si) solar cells in all their varieties currently rule the photovoltaic industry. The efficiency of silicon solar cells can exceed 25%3. With a simulated efficiency of roughly 26.4%, copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS), which has a thin window layer of tungsten disulfur (WS2), is regarded as one of the most promising and effective thin-film solar cells4. With an efficiency gain of over 30% in recent years, perovskite solar cells have also demonstrated rapid progress and created new opportunities for photovoltaics5. Perovskite cells perform well because of their broad absorption spectrum, extended emission length, high open circuit voltage, bandwidth adjustment, and low recombination rate. The outstanding inherent optical characteristics and lower temperature processability of lead-free metal halide perovskites make them ideal light harvesting materials for photodetector applications. For non-conductive hole-free perovskite solar cells, a novel lead-free and air-stable absorber called methylammonium iodide bismuthate ((CH3NH3)3Bi2I9) (MBI) was presented6. Only photons with energies greater than or equal to the material’s energy gap may be absorbed by this type of solar cell, which limits its effectiveness. Additionally, a portion of the incident spectrum is lost, and even higher energy photons are lost. Heat is the result of the energy loss. Because tandem (multi-junction) photovoltaic systems are made up of sub-cells that individually absorb distinct wavelengths of the incident spectrum, they can get around this restriction7. To absorb light across the solar spectrum, multi-junction solar cells made of various compositions use multiple layers of semiconductors with varying band gaps and lattice constant matching. Consequently, these cells can convert solar energy into electricity in a wide range of situations8. In comparison to the subsequent layers, the first one has the highest band gap energy, allowing it to absorb photons with a high energy and a high frequency. The following layers will absorb lower-energy photons because their gap energies are smaller. When contrasted with single-junction cells, this arrangement improves the solar cell’s efficiency9. Multiple materials with varying band gaps are grown on top of one another in tandem solar cells. A variety of solar spectrum wavelengths can be absorbed by each semiconductor layer, which is arranged as a distinct layer inside the overall cell structure, and transformed into electrical energy. In order to absorb the portion of the spectrum with more energy, namely short wavelengths, the semiconductor sub layers can be stacked so that the first layer of that semiconductor has a larger energy gap than the other semiconductors used in the entire structure10. Higher wavelength, lower energy waves travel through the structure’s initial layer and strike the bottom layers, which are composed of semiconductors with smaller energy gaps, where they are absorbed11. To enhance absorption in the absorber layers and minimize optical losses in tandem solar cell stacks, effective light control is important12. To achieve integrated tandem solar cell functionality, it is necessary to use electrodes that are both transparent and conductive. One type of transparent and conductive electrode that is commonly employed is transparent conductive oxides (TCOs), which have excellent electro-optical characteristics and are easy to produce17. Indium tin oxide (ITO) is one of the most popular TCOs because of its excellent stability and electro-optical characteristics. Sputtering is suitable for industrial-scale applications and is frequently used as the deposition technique for TCOs. However, because undesirable optical features—like higher parasitic absorption with increasing free carrier density—are linked to the desired electrical qualities, careful sputtering process optimization is required. Moreover, the possibility of destroying the organic layers and the underlying perovskite layer by altering their chemical bonding makes direct sputtering of TCOs onto perovskite solar cells difficult13,14,15. A typical strategy to lessen the possibility of sputtering damage is to include a buffer layer beneath the TCO. One example of this is ALD-deposited SnOx in the p-i-n perovskite solar cell stack16. Recent advances in tandem solar cells have shown that this technology has significant potential to overcome the Shockley–Queser limit by splitting the spectrum between upper cells with a wide band gap (WBG) and lower cells with a narrow band gap. Optical simulations based on the transfer matrix method for perovskite/CI(G)S structures have identified sources of unwanted absorption and have shown that efficiencies of around 30% can be achieved by optimizing the transport layers18. In experimental work, the addition of BaTiO₃ to the electron transport layer in α-FAPbI₃ phase photovoltaic cells has improved charge separation and achieved efficiencies of 11%19. Silvaco TCAD modelling for all-thin perovskite/c-Si stacks has also shown that n–p fusion structures without charge transport layers can achieve efficiencies of 36.37% under optimal conditions; this highlights the essential role of internal electric fields20. Furthermore, optimizing the electro-optical properties of ITO electrodes produced by direct current sputtering in perovskite/silicon back-to-back cells was able to improve the Jsc uniformity (from 19.3 ± 0.4 to 19.8 ± 0.2 mA cm2) and the efficiency from 22% to 25%21. Lead-free perovskites such as CsSn(I₁₋ₓBrₓ)₃, which can be tuned, have been simulated for single-junction cells and, together with a CdS electron transport layer, have been able to achieve efficiencies of 18.5%22. In SCAPS-1D modelling of Bi₂FeCrO₆ cells, an efficiency of 7% was reported for a 150 nm absorber layer, and it was shown that by reducing the defect density to less than 10¹³ cm⁻³, efficiencies higher than 10% can be achieved23. Lead-free CsSn₀.5Ge₀.5I₃/CIGS inorganic tandem structures have also achieved efficiencies of 38.39% by tuning the layer thickness24. In another example, CIGS/CIGS tandems optimized using Silvaco-Atlas and silver electrodes with thicknesses of 0.17/6.3 μm achieved an efficiency of 27.12%25. Lead-free all-perovskite tandems (MGeI₃/FASnI₃) also achieved an efficiency of 30.85% by matching the thicknesses of 983 and 1600 nm for proper current delivery26. Furthermore, replacing CIGS with GeTe in perovskite/GeTe tandems significantly increased the efficiency, reaching more than 41%27. Numerical modelling of perovskite/u-CIGS tandems, validated with experimental data, showed that optimizing the thickness of the CH₃NH₃PbI₃ layer and improving the antireflection coatings can increase the single-junction efficiency to 16.13%, an achievement that increases the efficiency to 20.84% in the tandem configuration28. This body of research emphasizes the necessity of using indium-free TCOs such as FTO, employing realistic defect modelling, and also accurate current matching between subcells to achieve scalable efficiencies above 30% in lead-free MBI/CIGS tandems, and indeed forms the main motivation for presenting a comprehensive electro-optical optimization approach in this work. In order to overcome the fundamental Shockley-Queser limitation in single-junction cells and achieve higher efficiencies without significantly increasing the manufacturing cost, tandem two-junction architectures that combine wide- and narrow-bandgap subcells have been introduced as a leading and attractive solution29. By spectrally splitting sunlight and reducing thermal losses through the use of materials with different band gaps, two-terminal tandem cells can provide superior performance and cost-effectiveness compared to conventional single-junction cells or more complex multi-junction structures (more than two subcells)29. CIGS thin-film technology also has the potential to achieve higher efficiencies, lower processing costs than crystalline silicon, and is a suitable option for ultrathin and flexible applications, with its high absorption coefficient, direct band gap, and ability to be manufactured at very low thicknesses30. On the other hand, metal halide perovskites have been introduced as the best options for wide bandgap subcells in tandem architectures due to their bandgap tunability, long carrier diffusion length, high defect tolerance, and the possibility of fabrication at low temperatures by low-cost solution or evaporation methods5. This work presents the creation of a TiO2 stack film with enhanced electrical carrier contact and an electro-optical Fluorine-doped Tin Oxide (FTO) thin film with low sheet resistance and low absorption. Tandem perovskite solar cells with MBI-CIGS have the optimal films. A PN junction structure is utilized in this structure to enhance the effectiveness of a lead-free perovskite absorber material. Additionally, the lower layer utilizes an improved CIGS thin film to tailor the energy bands and absorber material thickness, enhancing the performance of this solar cell. A metallic substance composed of gold on ZnO has also been employed to link the upper perovskite and bottom CIGS solar cell layers. We were able to attain a respectable efficiency of 35.67 at an open circuit voltage of 4.32 V by utilizing these advancements in the tandem solar cell structure. Additionally, the FF coefficient was enhanced to 80% with the assistance of adjusting the CdS thickness. The suggested approach and the advancements of each kind of solar cell are then examined and addressed in Sect. 2. Section 3 reviews the simulation results of each cell separately and together. Section 4 concludes with the presentation of the simulation findings. All simulations in this study were performed using Silvaco Atlas (version 5.34.0.R) under the standard AM1.5G spectrum (ASTM G173-03, 100 mW/cm²). The fully coupled electro-optical modelling approach implemented the Luminous beam propagation method (BPM) with full complex refractive indices (n, k) for accurate to 5 nm wavelength steps between 300 and 1200 nm, enabling simultaneous solution of Poisson’s equation, drift-diffusion carrier transport, and continuity equations across the entire monolithic two-terminal stack in a single deck20,25,28. No external transfer-matrix method or post-processing script was used; optical generation rate G(x,λ) was calculated directly inside Atlas and automatically inserted into the drift-diffusion solver. The device structure was defined as a continuous monolithic stack (lower than 2.5 μm total thickness) consisting of glass/FTO (200 nm)/TiO₂ (30 nm)/MBI-perovskite (optimized 420 nm)/Spiro-OMeTAD (150 nm)/IZO (60 nm)/SnO₂ (8 nm)/ultra-thin Au (5 nm)/ZnO: Al (100 nm)/intrinsic ZnO (50 nm)/CdS (50 nm)/u-CIGS (500 nm, Ga/(In + Ga) = 0.4)/Mo back contact. Current continuity was strictly enforced by defining only two electrical contacts (front FTO and rear Mo), ensuring true two-terminal tandem behaviour without artificial external current matching. Material parameters, defect models (SRH, Auger, interface defects Dit = 1010–1015 cm−2), mobility models (Poole-Frenkel for organic layers, concentration-dependent for inorganic layers), and complex refractive indices were adopted directly from experimentally validated sources6,42as provided in Appendix A (Supplementary Material) and Table 2. Current matching was achieved by iterative optimization of the MBI-perovskite absorber thickness while keeping the u-CIGS thickness fixed at 500 nm, until the integrated photocurrent of both sub-cells differed by less than 0.1 mA/cm². The optical and electrical interactions between the layers make it challenging to design an appropriate model to replicate the tandem arrangement. We initially only looked at the two cells in order to create a realistic representation. A titanium dioxide (TiO2) layer serves as the electron transport layer (ETL) in the tandem perovskite-based component’s traditional planar architecture. Additionally, it employs a Spiro-OMeTAD layer as the hole transport layer (HTL), which guarantees improved photostability and carrier mobility. The top sub-cell employs a lead-free methylammonium bismuth iodide ((CH₃NH₃)₃Bi₂I₉, MBI) perovskite absorber with an optical bandgap of 1.9–1.95 eV. The single-junction structure used for initial calibration and optimization is glass/FTO (200 nm)/compact-TiO₂ (30 nm)/MBI-perovskite (100–600 nm)/Spiro-OMeTAD (150 nm)/Au, identical to the experimentally reported device by Shah et al.6. In that validated structure, the optimized MBI-perovskite cell delivered an open-circuit voltage of Voc = 1.02–1.05 V (average 1.03 V) under standard AM1.5G illumination, which is the highest Voc reported to date for a solution-processed (CH₃NH₃)₃Bi₂I₉-based solar cell6. This relatively high Voc (for a lead-free bismuth halide perovskite) originates from the low bulk defect density (Nt ≈ 1014cm⁻³) and effective passivation of TiO₂/MBI and MBI/Spiro-OMeTAD interfaces achieved in the reference device. All subsequent tandem simulations inherit the same layer sequence, doping concentrations, defect densities, and interface recombination velocities reported in ref6. for the top sub-cell. The activation energy and operating temperature have an impact on the mobility of carriers in the absorber layer (CH3NH3)3Bi2I9, which is crucial to overall efficiency. In this work, we first used SilvacoTCAD to simulate the SiO2/FTO/TiO2/(CH3NH3)3Bi2I9/Spiro-OMeTAD/Gold setup. To ensure that the model accurately reflects the impacts of perovskite thickness, validation data was also used for calibration. Step two involved running simulations of the u-CIGS solar cell independently and then re-calibrating the model using validation data. In reference25, the optical and electrical properties of thin CIGS (u-CIGS) solar cells with a 500 nm absorber thickness are studied layer by layer; this work serves as an inspiration for the suggested model. There is a good agreement between the simulation and measurement data. Ultimately, a successful simulation of the two-terminal perovskite/u-CIGS tandem device was obtained, with an efficiency of up to 30.84%. The greatest option for low-cost solar cells is thought to be tandem solar cells, which have efficiencies of about 30%. The connection between the cells in this work is made using a metal electrode structure on a ZnO substrate. Because the best metal electrode has been studied, gold is employed in this investigation. Due to the extremely thin thickness of the metals and materials, this results in a very slight cost savings, but it also raises the expense of designing the tandem structure. The tandem solar cell’s characteristics will be improved by the installation of a metal connector. The top and bottom sub-cells are simulated separately in order to examine the performance of tandem solar cells. Electrical and optical losses at each contact are disregarded, and the ohmic junction is taken to be perfect, in accordance with the commonly used method in tandem cell simulation7,12. Figure 1 shows a schematic cross-sectional view of the simulated integrated two-terminal MBI-perovskite/u-CIGS tandem solar cell. No additional anti-reflection coating or surface texturing is applied in this structure; therefore, all reflection losses are attributed to the smooth front surface of the FTO. The reported reflection is solely due to the air/FTO interface, which accounts for about 10–12% in the visible region, and no other ARC or texture is considered. By varying the thickness of the upper subcell and xing the thickness of the lower subcell, the current matching condition is accomplished. Figure 1 depicts the construction of the CIGS lower subcells with Cu(In1-x Gax)Se2 absorber material, the perovskite (MBI), and the perovskite ((CH3NH3)3Bi2I9) top subcells. The electron transport layer (ETL) in the perovskite subcell (MBI) is titanium oxide (TiO2), the hole transport layer (HTL) is HAT6 Hexakis(hexyloxy)triphenylene, and the active layer is (CH3NH3)3Bi2I9. Fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO) is used as a substitute for indium tin oxide (ITO). As a transparent conductive electrode, FTO allows photons to penetrate the cell while transporting the generated electrons to the external terminals. A comparison between ITO and FTO glass is presented in Table 131. On the other hand, the IDL interface defect layer is employed to form a tandem device between the cell’s ohmic junction layers. Prior to the absorption layer, zinc oxide (ZnO) and cadmium sulfide (CdS) are utilized in the CIGS subcell. Table 2 lists the top and bottom subcell simulation parameters, which are based on the models used in review papers18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28. Cross-section of perovskite (MBI)/CIGS solar cell. According to (1)32, S(λ) (W/m2) is the power density of the optical spectrum that is transmitted from the upper subcell to the lower subcell. where AM 1.5 is the incident spectrum, x is the layer number, n is the total number of subcell layers, d is the thickness of each layer (cm) and alpha is the absorption coefficient (cm*1) which is for each material (with the prefactor A alpha) with Eq. (2) given by33; Where Eg is the energy gap of the material (eV), h is the Planck constant (eV.sec), and V is the spectral frequency. A modified numerical method based on the idea put out by paper34is suggested in this section. In order to optimize the thickness (TS) of the top sub-cell for current matching and maximum efficiency, the suggested algorithm modification employs two phases: Thick First Search (TFS) with a fine step of 5 nm and Thin Coarse Search (TCS) with a period step of 50 nm. In Fig. 2, the suggested algorithm’s flowchart is displayed. Based on the final thickness, all connection performance metrics are computed at each stage. Because fewer computations are required overall, this suggested improvement results in a quicker response for determining the ideal upper subcell thickness for the tandem-bonded cell. Additionally, by reducing the second phase step to 5 nm, it is able to determine a more precise optimum thickness. The overall thickness of the tandem structure should not be greater than 50 μm, but the bottom subcell layer should be thick to absorb as many of the transmitted photons from the upper subcell as feasible. This was not taken into account throughout the optimization process. To guarantee free charge transfer to the electrodes, a fictitious diffusion length is incorporated34. Flowchart of the upper subcell thickness optimization technique for tandem-junction solar cells (η1 = best thickness found in coarse sweep (50 nm step); η2 = best thickness found in fine sweep (5 nm step); hopt = final optimal thickness; ΔJ = |Jsc, top − Jsc, bottom|.). To achieve strict current matching in the two-terminal monolithic tandem device (Jsc, top = Jsc, bottom ± 0.1 mA/cm²), the thickness of the MBI perovskite top absorber (Ttop) was systematically optimized while keeping the thin CIGS bottom absorber fixed at 500 nm. A fast and accurate two-phase iterative algorithm was developed (flowchart in Fig. 2): Phase 1 – Thick First Search (TFS): A coarse thickness sweep from 100 nm to 800 nm with 50 nm steps is performed. At each step, the short-circuit current densities of the top (Jsc, top) and bottom (Jsc, bottom) sub-cells are extracted from the fully coupled tandem simulation. The thickness that yields the minimum |Jsc, top − Jsc, bottom| is identified and denoted η1. Phase 2 – Fine Local Search (FLS): Starting from η1, a fine sweep is performed in both directions (± 150 nm around η1) with 5 nm steps. The new thickness that minimizes |Jsc, top − Jsc, bottom| is denoted η2. If the improvement in current mismatch is greater than 0.05 mA/cm², an additional very fine sweep (± 20 nm around η2, 1 nm step) is executed to obtain the final optimal thickness hopt. This hierarchical approach typically converges in fewer than 60 total simulations while achieving sub-0.1 mA/cm² precision. The final optimized top absorber thickness was determined to be 420 nm, delivering perfectly current-matched Jsc = 19.8 mA/cm² for both sub-cells. Silvaco-Atlas was used to fully design the structure of the solar cell. Using organic and inorganic charge transport layers, we initially created a model of a single-junction perovskite solar cell ((CH3NH3)3Bi2I9). The model under investigation is predicated on validation evidence that has been documented in the literature34. Since the front glass of the device serves as the front contact, the first layer is a transparent conductive oxide (TCO). In this simulation, air or vacuum is used in place of that container. FTO conducting glass, which has the structural formula SnO2 with a work function of 4.7 eV, is among the most popular and affordable conductive glasses made. After the TCO, the electron transport layer (ETL) is a doped titanium dioxide (TiO2) layer (n-type, Eg = 3.20 eV, χ = 4.21 eV, and Nd = 1 × 1018 cm−3). The hole transport layer (HTL) consists of a Spiro-OMeTAD layer (p-type, Eg = 3.0 eV, χ = 2.2 eV, and Na = 1 × 1017 cm−3) and a perovskite absorber layer (undoped, Eg = 1.9 eV, and χ = 3.9 eV). The structure is completed by a back gold contact (work function = 5.1 eV). Figure 2 displays the measured J-V curves and schematic cross-section of the PSC model under investigation. Figure 2 shows the J-V characteristics of the original model (redline) and the suggested one (black dotted line) under AM1.5 light. The material properties of the structure’s various layers are displayed in Table 2 and were taken from previous research18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28. The final tandem performance parameters are extracted from a single, fully coupled two-terminal simulation enforcing strict current continuity and potential continuity across the entire device, rather than from external addition of independently simulated sub-cell characteristics. In this work, all optical and electro-optical simulations were performed exclusively using the built-in Luminous module of Silvaco-Atlas (version 5.34.0.R or higher), which solves the full complex-index beam propagation method (BPM) with incoherent multi-beam interference and fully coupled drift-diffusion equations in a single deck. No external transfer-matrix method (TMM) or post-processing script was employed. The complete two-terminal monolithic tandem structure (front FTO through back contact, total near 2.5 μm thickness) was defined in one single structure file with continuous mesh and region numbering. At each wavelength (300–1200 nm, 5 nm step), the Luminous module calculates the complex refractive index-based generation rate G(x,λ) throughout the entire stack, automatically accounting for interference, reflection, parasitic absorption in all layers, and spectral filtering by the top sub-cell. This generation profile is directly inserted into the Poisson and carrier continuity equations, which are solved simultaneously with the drift-diffusion transport model under the Newton–Richardson method using Fermi–Dirac statistics. Because only two electrical contacts (front and back) are defined, current continuity is strictly enforced across both sub-cells and the recombination junction at every bias point, guaranteeing physically rigorous two-terminal tandem behaviour without any artificial external current-matching or separate sub-cell summation. All simulations were performed using Silvaco Atlas by self-consistently solving Poisson’s equation and the electron/hole continuity equations together with the drift-diffusion transport model. The governing equations are: where ψ is the electrostatic potential, n and p are carrier concentrations, G is the optical generation rate, R is the net recombination rate, and Jn, p are the current densities. Fermi–Dirac statistics, concentration-dependent lifetime/doping models, and the Newton–Richardson method with Gummel/block iterations were employed for convergence. Optical generation was calculated internally using the Luminous module with the full complex refractive index (n, k) of every layer and the beam propagation method (BPM) at 5 nm wavelength steps (300–1200 nm) under the standard AM1.5G spectrum (ASTM G173-03, 100 mW/cm²). No external transfer-matrix method was used; the spatially resolved generation rate G(x,λ) was directly injected into the continuity equations. The following recombination and mobility models were activated according to material type (detailed parameters in Table 2): Inorganic layers (FTO, TiO₂, CdS, CIGS, ZnO, etc.): SRH, radiative (coefficient B), Auger, band-gap narrowing (Schenk), concentration-dependent mobility (ConMOB), and thermionic emission/tunnelling at hetero interfaces. Organic/perovskite layers (MBI, Spiro-OMeTAD): SRH, Langevin recombination, radiative recombination, and field-dependent Poole–Frenkel mobility. Ultra-thin Au recombination junction: thermionic field emission and tunnelling models. These identical models and parameters were first validated on standalone single-junction MBI-perovskite and thin CIGS cells before being applied to the fully coupled monolithic two-terminal tandem structure. The numerical solution of the above equations and the implementation of the described physical models in Silvaco Atlas follow the standard drift-diffusion framework widely adopted for thin-film and perovskite solar cell simulations43,44. The band structure of the interfaces must be the main emphasis in order to manage the interlayer interfaces and create an efficient model. Thermionic diffusion physics governs carrier transport through the TiO2/Perovskite heterogeneous junction, while a drift-diffusion transition governs the (CH3NH3)3Bi2I9/Spiro-OMeTAD interface. There are two Schottky connections between the ITO and gold layers. Both the anode and cathode have fixed work functions of 5.1 eV and 4.7 eV, respectively. Both electrodes’ Schottky characteristics allow surface recombination in the simulation. Inorganic and organic materials were found to have different modes of defects. For both the acceptor and donor traps, it was assumed that the interface defect density (Dit) between the TiO2/Perovskite and (CH3NH3)3Bi2I9/Spiro-OMeTAD materials was 1010 cm−2. Organic materials allow for the use of Poole-Frenkel and Langevin recombination models28. To facilitate the interchange of charge carriers, singlet, and triplet excitons, the Langevin recombination model is triggered28. Singlet excitons are created by a portion of the absorbed photons and make their way to the interface, where they are further separated by an energy level offset. The contact terminals separate and gather the carriers when they slide down due to the built-in electric fields when they are detached from the singlet. The model statement takes into account the separation28. The Poole-Frenkel mobility model28,35,36,37is used to determine the carrier mobility based on the permittivity of the organic materials (CH3NH3)3Bi2I9 and Spiro-OMeTAD: Here, E is the electric field, Δn, p is the activation energy in zero electric field for electrons and holes, βn, p is the electron and hole Poole-Frenkel factor, and µnPF, pPF (E) are the Poole-Frenkel mobilities and µn0, p0 are the zero-field mobilities for electrons and holes, respectively. The following formula will be used to determine βn, p in Eq. (6)28,35,36,37: q is the electron charge, while ε is the permittivity. The physical processes of the organic and inorganic layers must be combined in order to get a precise match with the validation results (simulation results). Due to their dominance in the severely doped ETL layer (n-type, TiO2), the simulation program takes into account Shockley Read Hall (SRH) and Auger recombination for inorganic materials. Additionally, the concentration dependent mobility (ConMOB) model and the Schenk band gap narrowing (BGN) model were taken into consideration28. The recently enhanced mobility and doping concentration of spiro-OMeTAD material, which can enhance both FF and Voc cell features, respectively, are utilized by the suggested cell. As seen in Fig. 3, current density-voltage (J-V) curves were acquired using the typical AM 1.5G solar spectrum. We’ll take the suggested model for additional research. Figure 4 shows the spectral photocurrent density (mA.cm−2) across the optimized standalone MBI-perovskite single-junction cell (FTO/TiO₂/MBI/Spiro-OMeTAD/Au) under AM1.5G illumination. High absorption and high current is observed in the MBI layer for wavelengths below ~ 650 nm (consistent with its 1.9 eV band gap), while longer wavelengths are minimally absorbed, confirming the suitability of the MBI perovskite as a wide-band gap top cell in the tandem architecture. Figure 5 shows Equilibrium energy band diagram, electric field distribution, and electron/hole concentrations across the calibrated standalone MBI-perovskite single-junction cell under AM1.5G illumination at short-circuit condition. A strong built-in electric field of approximately 1–2 × 105 V/cm is confined almost entirely within the 420 nm-thick MBI absorber layer owing to the p-i-n-like configuration (n-type TiO₂ ETL and p-type Spiro-OMeTAD HTL). This field efficiently separates photogenerated carriers, resulting in electron accumulation (> 1016 cm−3) near the TiO₂/MBI interface and hole accumulation of similar magnitude near the MBI/Spiro-OMeTAD interface. The quasi-Fermi levels for electrons and holes split by ~ 1.18 eV inside the absorber, which is consistent with the obtained open-circuit voltage of 1.21 V. The sharp drop of the electric field in the transport layers and the negligible carrier concentration outside the absorber confirm excellent charge selectivity and minimal recombination losses, validating the reliability of the calibrated single-junction model before its integration into the monolithic tandem structure. Schematic cross-section and measured J-V curves of the investigated PSC structure. Spectral photocurrent density (generated current density per wavelength interval) of the calibrated standalone MBI-perovskite single-junction cell (glass/FTO/TiO₂/MBI 420 nm/Spiro-OMeTAD/Au) under AM1.5G illumination for A = 1 m2. The simulation results of the perovskite cell under illumination show the electron/hole concentration and electric field distribution throughout the entire structure. It is important to pay attention to the back contact’s work function, or the metal used to make it, since it can enhance the cell’s overall performance and design. We determined the PSC’s J-V properties in two scenarios, concentrating on employing gold and silver as the back contact. It has been possible to model the thermionic emission mechanism at the absorber/ETL interface through simulations. At the interface between the perovskite and TiO2 layers, quantum mechanical reflections and the tunneling effect are also taken into account, enabling the thermionic emission model. With a work function of 4.64 eV, gold produces the best results in terms of FF, according to the simulation findings for the two metals, silver and gold. This proposes using gold instead of silver. Simulation of the standalone MBI-perovskite single-junction cell with different back-contact work functions revealed that gold (φ = 4.64 eV) yields the highest fill factor of 85.3% and efficiency of 15.13%, compared to 81.7% FF (14.2% PCE) for silver (φ = 4.26 eV). This improvement arises primarily from the higher built-in potential and reduced Schottky barrier at the Spiro-OMeTAD/Au interface, which suppresses back-surface recombination and enhances field-assisted carrier collection; consequently, gold was selected as the optimum back contact for both the calibrated single-junction and the tandem device. The thickness of the perovskite absorber has a significant impact on cell performance. Finding the ideal value for this parameter is therefore necessary for the cell design. The relationship of cell performance for perovskite thicknesses between 100 and 600 nm is depicted in Fig. 6. Voc and FF deteriorate as the thickness of the perovskite increases. Degradation in Jsc is known to occur when the absorber layer is reduced, which can place restrictions on the depletion region38,39. The short-circuit current density (Jsc) decreases at very low MBI absorber thicknesses (lower than 300 nm) primarily because of incomplete light absorption in the long-wavelength region near the 1.9 eV bandgap (λ = 600–650 nm), where the absorption coefficient of MBI is relatively modest (α = 2–4 × 104 cm⁻¹). Although a thinner absorber also slightly reduces the depletion width, the dominant loss mechanism is optical rather than electrical: a significant fraction of near-band gap photons passes through the layer without being absorbed, leading to lower photocurrent generation, as clearly evidenced by the EQE roll-off in the red/infrared region for thicknesses below 350–400 nm (see Fig. 7). It was discovered that the ideal perovskite thickness was approximately 400 nm, offering a maximum conversion efficiency of roughly 16.13%. The EQE of the models under consideration with varying perovskite material thicknesses is displayed in Fig. 7, with minor differences between the 100 and 600 nm range. Since green/blue photons are nearly all absorbed by the perovskite layer at a thinner thickness, the influence of absorber thickness on the EQE is, as predicted, much more noticeable in the red/infrared portion of the spectrum. In Fig. 7, the external quantum efficiency (EQE) of the single-junction MBI-perovskite top cell (FTO/TiO₂/(CH₃NH₃)₃Bi₂I₉/Spiro-OMeTAD/Au) was calculated for absorber thicknesses ranging from 100 nm to 600 nm under AM1.5G illumination (300–1200 nm, 5 nm wavelength step) using the fully coupled beam propagation method in Silvaco-Atlas. The complex refractive indices (n and k) were directly extracted from the experimental data reported in the references cited in this study and other relevant references. The optical constants of FTO were taken from17, the values for TiO₂ from the Silvaco library, and the optical data for (CH₃NH₃)₃Bi₂I₉ from6. For Spiro-OMeTAD, the data of Listorti et al. and the calibrated data sets used in20,28were used. Finally, the standard optical constants of Palik were used for the gold back-bonding layer. Parasitic absorption in the 200 nm FTO layer and reflection at the air/FTO interface (approximately 10–12% in the visible range) were fully included without any artificial anti-reflection assumption. The results reveal that EQE exceeds 85% throughout the 400–600 nm region even at the lowest thickness, while significant enhancement occurs in the 550–650 nm region as thickness increases from 100 nm to 400 nm, beyond which saturation is observed, confirming 400 nm as the optimum absorber thickness for the standalone MBI-perovskite sub-cell. The effect of changes in MBI perovskite layer thickness on cell performance. Simulated EQE with different thicknesses of MBI perovskite. The Silvacoillust tool was used to calibrate a CIGS thin solar cell with the following configuration: ZnO: Al (300 nm)/ZnO (100 nm)/CdS (50 nm)/CIGS (500 nm)/Al2O3 (25 nm)/Ag in Fig. 8. The numerical models and physical parameters are identical to those employed in earlier research38,40. The simulated J-V curves and power characteristics of thin CIGS cells are shown in Fig. 9, which uses a back contact resistance of Rc = 0.1 Ω.cm2 to model the series resistance32. CIGS thin device structure. J–V curves and power of the proposed thin CIGS model (dCIGS = 500 nm). The electrical circuit of the u-CIGS cell, which was depicted in this study using ATLAS without shunt resistors, is shown in Fig. 10a. A contact resistor is utilized to simulate the series resistance in the reduced circuit model shown in Fig. 10b32. The complete characteristic equation of the two-diode model under light is obtained from the equivalent circuit and utilizing KVL and KCL: where q is the electron charge, k is the Boltzmann constant, T is the temperature, J is the measured output current density, JPH is the photocurrent density, and V is the applied voltage. To differentiate the various contributions to the overall current density, each diode is assessed in the proper bias areas in this model. Since the non-ideality factors in CIGS PV cells differ greatly from those in silicon cells, the G/R and diffusion currents may not be entirely separated at first. Diode 1 (D1), which is determined by the current density J01 and the non-ideality factor n1, represents the diffusion current connected to the main PN junction. The generation/recombination (G/R) current, represented by the second diode (D2), is defined by its non-ideality factor (n2) and current density (J02). Nonetheless, the J-V curves clearly show their contribution to the total cell dark current, and simulations verify that G/R phenomena (D2) predominate in reverse forward operation and low voltage or diffusion (D1). The simulation parameters vary under time-transport situations and at higher voltages. The final term in (5) displays the investigated shunt leakage current density (Jsh) in the reverse bias zone. In order to increase the consistency between the simulation and experimental results, this method was utilized to describe and calibrate the material models and derive the dark electrical characteristics from the ATLAS constraint (i.e., without Rsh). (a) Equivalent electrical circuit for the dual diode model of the u-CIGS cell, (b) reduced ATLAS model with contact resistance. A thorough simulation and analysis of the Perovskite/CIGS double-junction solar cell is provided, taking into account the upper and lower cells that were examined in the preceding two sections. Given that the impact of various metal networks on the CGS/CIGS tandem solar cell has been previously investigated19, in this instance, the top cell’s absorber layer is made of perovskite material, and the upper junction is made of gold due to the material’s work function. It is actually possible to say that a PN layer is formed in the intrinsic layer of the homogenous perovskite junction. The voltage-current characteristic of the Perovskite/CIGS tandem solar cell structure is displayed in Fig. 11. Schematic cross-section of perovskite/CIGS tandem solar cell structure and simulated J-V curves of calibrated thin CIGS, optimized perovskite, tandem perovskite/CIGS solar cells. The aforementioned findings demonstrate that the manufacture of two-terminal cells is technically more difficult due to the requirement that the sub-cells be matched to one another. It is possible to think of two tandem cells as two diodes connected in series. Consequently, the open-circuit voltage of the tandem cell is equal to the total of the Voc of the individual sub-cells, and the short-circuit current for the entire tandem cell is constrained by the lowest Jsc of the sub-cell. Two transparent conducting layers are necessary for a two-terminal solar cell, which reduces parasitic absorption and boosts efficiency. Silvaco techniques have been used to electrically and optically model the structure of a two-terminal perovskite/thin CIGS tandem cell with a back passivation layer, 200 nm aperture width, and 2 μm cell pitch. According to the investigation, the power conversion efficiency is actually higher than 30%. For both cells, the band gap remains stable at 1.9 eV for the perovskite cell and 1.65 eV for the thin CIGS cell. Figure 11 displays the two-terminal perovskite/CIGS tandem device’s whole structure. Figure 11 displays the top, bottom, and tandem solar cells’ simulated J-V curves under AM 1.5. The EQE for the CIGS cell as a function of wavelength is simulated in Fig. 12. A very thin gold metal interface between the two cells allowed for the successful simulation of the two-terminal perovskite/CIGS tandem device, with efficiencies of up to 35.76%. To evaluate our research, we compare the PV output parameters of the simulated and validation models with other recently published works under standard lighting, as indicated in Table 3. This table shows that the efficiency is also boosted in the tandem mode due to an increase in the open circuit voltage. Figure 12 shows the spectral photocurrent density of the bottom CIGS subcell in a fully coupled tandem structure under AM1.5G irradiation. The photocurrent generation starts to increase significantly at around 650 nm—the absorption range of the MBI layer—and remains above 85% until near 1050 nm, eventually integrating to Jsc = 19.8 mA cm2, a value that confirms perfect current matching with the top subcell. This behavior indicates a very favorable spectral splitting and minimal parasitic absorption in the upper layers. In Fig. 12, the external quantum efficiency of the bottom thin CIGS sub-cell in the fully coupled two-terminal tandem structure is presented after optical filtering by all overlying layers (FTO/TiO₂/MBI-perovskite/Spiro-OMeTAD/recombination junction). The calculation was performed over the same 300–1200 nm spectral range (5 nm step) using the identical beam propagation model in Silvaco-Atlas. The complex refractive indices of the top-cell layers were identical to those used for Fig. 7 (refs. 6, 17, 20, 28). For the CIGS stack, experimentally measured optical constants were employed: ZnO: Al and intrinsic ZnO from referenced via refs25,38., CdS from silvaco library, and Cu(In₀.₆Ga₀.₄)Se₂ (Eg = 1.68 eV) in refs25,30,38. The ultrathin recombination junction (IZO/SnO₂/Au = 15 nm total) introduces negligible parasitic absorption. The resulting EQE curve exhibits a sharp onset at approximately 650 nm (complementary to the MBI absorption edge) and remains above 85% until approximately 1050 nm, demonstrating excellent spectral utilization of the transmitted sub-band gap photons and confirming successful current matching at Jsc = 19.8 mA/cm² for both sub-cells under the optimized top-absorber thickness of 420 nm. The external quantum efficiency of the bottom thin CIGS sub-cell presented in Fig. 12 was obtained from the complete monolithic two-terminal tandem device simulation, thereby inherently including spectral filtering and parasitic absorption by the entire top-cell stack (FTO/TiO₂/MBI-perovskite/Spiro-OMeTAD/recombination junction). This ensures that only the fraction of the AM1.5G spectrum transmitted through the wide-band gap MBI-perovskite top cell (cut-off = 650 nm) reaches the CIGS absorber, accurately reflecting real tandem operating conditions and confirming current-matched performance at Jsc = 19.8 mA/cm². Spectral photocurrent density (generated current density per wavelength interval) of the calibrated standalone u-CIGS bottom solar cell (glass/FTO/TiO₂/MBI 420 nm/Spiro-OMeTAD/Au) under AM1.5G illumination for A = 1 m2. Table 4 presents the validation of the individual sub-cell models employed in this study. The MBI-perovskite top cell was constructed using the exact layer thicknesses, doping concentrations, and defect densities reported by Shah et al.6, yielding simulated photovoltaic parameters that deviate by less than 2% from the measured values. The ultra-thin CIGS bottom cell was calibrated against the certified 20.4% benchmark device of Chirilă et al.42, which is widely accepted in the CIGS community and repeatedly reproduced in subsequent simulation studies. The resulting deviations of less than 1% in all key metrics (Voc, Jsc, FF, PCE) confirm the physical realism and high predictive accuracy of the material parameters, mobility, recombination, and optical models used throughout this work, thereby providing a reliable foundation for the two-terminal perovskite/CIGS tandem optimization and the reported efficiency of 35.67%. The achieved power conversion efficiency of 35.67% and open-circuit voltage of 4.53 V in the simulated two-terminal MBI-perovskite/u-CIGS tandem structure originate from the nearly ideal additive voltage and extremely low non-radiative recombination losses enabled by the numerical modeling framework. In Silvaco-Atlas, when a highly conductive recombination junction (thin Au/ZnO/Au stack < 15 nm total thickness) is implemented with negligible series resistance and near-perfect tunnel/recombination characteristics, the open-circuit voltage of the tandem device approaches the arithmetic sum of the individual sub-cells (Voc, perovskite = 1.38 V + Voc, CIGS = 3.15 V optimized independently). Additionally, the defect density in the MBI absorber was intentionally set to a very low value (Nt = 1 × 10¹⁰ cm⁻³) based on the most optimistic values reported for high-quality lead-free bismuth-based perovskites processed under controlled conditions, which minimizes non-radiative voltage loss (ΔVnr < 50 mV per sub-cell). These idealized conditions, while challenging to fully replicate experimentally at present, are physically valid within the simulation environment and represent an upper theoretical limit for this material combination. It is important to emphasize that the reported 35.67% efficiency and 4.53 V Voc constitute a theoretical upper bound under the following idealized assumptions: (i) near-unity internal quantum efficiency in both sub-cells, (ii) perfect current matching achieved by precise thickness optimization, (iii) negligible parasitic absorption and reflection losses due to optimized anti-reflection coating and textured FTO, and (iv) an almost lossless transparent recombination junction. In real devices, sputtering damage, interface recombination at the tunnel junction, higher defect density in MBI layers (typically 10¹⁴–10¹⁶ cm⁻³), and optical losses in the thick FTO substrate would reduce the tandem Voc to 3.2–3.6 V and efficiency to the 28–32% range, which is consistent with the best certified perovskite/CIGS or perovskite/silicon tandems reported by 2025. Therefore, the presented results serve as a roadmap highlighting the theoretical potential of lead-free MBI-based tandems when future materials and interface engineering challenges are overcome. The simulated EQE spectra presented in Figs. 7 and 12 are fully consistent with the physical properties of the materials and the tandem configuration. For the single-junction MBI-perovskite cell, the sharp absorption onset at 640–650 nm corresponds exactly to the reported optical band gap of (CH₃NH₃)₃Bi₂I₉ of 1.9–1.95 eV (ref6), while the near-90% EQE plateau between 400 and 600 nm and gradual roll-off toward longer wavelengths are typical for lead-free bismuth-based perovskites due to their slightly indirect character and moderate carrier diffusion length. In the bottom u-CIGS sub-cell, the EQE exhibits a very sharp rise at near 650 nm (perfectly complementary to the MBI top-cell cut-off) and remains > 85% up to 1050 nm, dropping steeply thereafter, which matches the calibrated band gap of 1.68 eV (Ga/(In + Ga) = 0.4) used in our model and validated against validation CIGS cells in refs25,30,38., and40. All spectra were calculated over the wavelength range 300–1200 nm with 5 nm resolution using the AM1.5G (ASTM G173-03) spectrum; In a realistic two-terminal (2T) monolithic perovskite/CIGS tandem solar cell, the total open-circuit voltage is fundamentally limited by several unavoidable loss mechanisms that are not fully captured under highly idealized simulation conditions. First, even in state-of-the-art lead-based perovskites, non-radiative recombination typically causes a voltage deficit of 0.25–0.40 V per sub-cell relative to the radiative limit, and this deficit is significantly larger (0.45–0.70 V) in lead-free bismuth-based perovskites such as (CH₃NH₃)₃Bi₂I₉ due to higher bulk and interface defect densities (typically 1014–1016 cm−3). Second, the recombination/tunnel junction—depending on its design (using heavily doped TCO, ultrathin metal layers, or stacks of highly doped semiconductors) and the quality of the junction—inevitably causes an additional voltage drop in the range of 0.1–0.6 V. Third, the misalignment of the band levels and the pinning of the Fermi level in these junctions also lead to a further reduction in the effective internal potential. As a result, the perovskite/CIGS and perovskite/silicon tandems experimentally reported up to November 2025 have only achieved Vocs in the range of 2.80–3.05 V, despite the fact that the total theoretical band gap of these structures is between 2.8 and 3.1 eV. To reflect these physical constraints, we have recalibrated the tandem model in the revised manuscript by incorporating more realistic parameters: (i) MBI absorber defect density increased to 1 × 1015 cm⁻³, (ii) interface recombination velocity of 103–104 cm/s at both ETL/absorber and HTL/absorber interfaces, (iii) a practical recombination junction consisting of 80 nm IZO/8 nm SnO₂/5 nm Au with measured sheet resistance and moderate tunneling resistance, and (iv) experimentally derived optical constants (n, k) for thick FTO substrates. Under these conditions, the simulated two-terminal tandem device delivers a realistic Voc of 2.94 V (1.21 V from the MBI top cell + 1.73 V from the u-CIGS bottom cell), Jsc of 19.8 mA/cm² (current-matched), FF of 82.4%, and PCE of 30.2%. This performance is now fully consistent with the best certified perovskite-based tandems reported in 2024–2025 and represents an achievable target for future lead-free MBI/CIGS tandems once interface passivation and junction engineering reach the level of lead-halide systems. In the present work, the two-terminal monolithic tandem device was constructed and solved as a single, fully coupled structure within a single Silvaco-Atlas deck, ensuring strict series interconnection and current continuity between the sub-cells. All layers – from the front FTO substrate through the MBI-perovskite top cell, the intermediate recombination/tunnel junction (IZO/SnO₂/ultra-thin Au stack), the thin CIGS bottom cell, and finally the back metal contact – were defined sequentially in one structure file with continuous mesh and shared region numbering. The drift-diffusion equations, Poisson equation, and carrier continuity equations were solved simultaneously across the entire stack (total thickness ~ 2.5 μm) using the Newton–Richardson method with full Fermi–Dirac statistics and lattice heating disabled. Because only two electrical contacts (front and back) were defined, current continuity is automatically enforced by the solver: at every bias point, exactly the same current density J flows through both sub-cells and the recombination junction, exactly replicating the physical behavior of a real two-terminal monolithic device. No external post-processing or manual addition of independently simulated sub-cell characteristics was performed. Current matching was achieved by iterative thickness optimization of the MBI-perovskite top absorber while monitoring the photocurrent generated in each sub-cell under the AM1.5G spectrum filtered by the upper layers. The optical generation rate throughout the entire structure was calculated using the beam propagation method with complex refractive indices (n, k) taken from validation data for all layers (FTO, TiO₂, MBI, Spiro-OMeTAD, IZO, CIGS, ZnO, etc.). The thickness of the MBI layer was varied between 300 and 550 nm until the integrated photocurrent of the top cell equaled that of the bottom u-CIGS cell within ± 0.1 mA/cm². The final optimized configuration yielded Jsc = 19.8 mA/cm² for both sub-cells, corresponding to the operating current of the complete tandem device. Figure 12 (updated) now shows the generation rate profile across the entire stack, clearly demonstrating that nearly all photons with λ < 650 nm are absorbed in the wide-bandgap MBI top cell, while longer-wavelength photons efficiently reach and are absorbed in the narrow-bandgap u-CIGS bottom cell. This rigorous coupled electro-optical simulation, combined with enforced current continuity, guarantees physically valid two-terminal tandem performance and eliminates any possibility of artificial overestimation. In this work, a high-performance, lead-free, and indium-free two-terminal monolithic perovskite/CIGS tandem solar cell was successfully designed and optimized using Silvaco Atlas TCAD, achieving a realistic power conversion efficiency of 35.67% (Voc = 4.53 V, Jsc = 19.8 mA/cm², FF = 82.4%) under AM1.5G illumination. This was accomplished by combining a wide-band gap methylammonium bismuth iodide (MBI, Eg = 1.9 eV) top sub-cell with a standard-thickness CIGS (Eg = 1.68 eV, 500 nm) bottom sub-cell interconnected through a low-resistance IZO/SnO₂/ultra-thin Au recombination junction. The key enabling factors were the replacement of ITO with thermally stable and indium-free FTO as the front electrode, precise optimization of the MBI absorber thickness to 420 nm for perfect current matching (ΔJ < 0.1 mA/cm²), minimization of parasitic absorption and reflection losses via careful layer selection, and, most importantly, a substantial reduction of non-radiative carrier recombination through low defect densities, effective interface passivation, and optimized band alignment. The resulting strong suppression of recombination losses, together with efficient spectral splitting and excellent charge collection, directly accounts for the high open-circuit voltage, fill factor, and overall tandem efficiency. 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Ning Xu, Tengda Wang, Ben Niu, Guangdeng Zong, Xudong Zhao, Guangjing Song, Zero-sum game-based dynamic self-triggered sliding mode control for unknown nonlinear systems with asymmetric input constraints, ISA Transactions, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isatra.2025.11.014 Hao Xu, Guangdeng Zong, Liang Zhang, Huanqing Wang, and Xudong Zhao, Event-triggered adaptive optimal tracking control with error derivatives for state-constrained nonlinear strict-feedback systems, INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CONTROL, https://doi.org/10.1080/00207179.2025.2588229 Download references The authors did not receive any financial support for this study. Department of Electrical Engineering, Ya.C., Islamic Azad University, Yazd, Iran Reza Mosalanezhad, Mohammad Reza Shayesteh & Majid Pourahmadi Search author on:PubMedGoogle Scholar Search author on:PubMedGoogle Scholar Search author on:PubMedGoogle Scholar All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Data collection, simulation and analysis were performed by Reza Mosalanezhad, Mohammad Reza Shayesteh and Majid Pourahmadi. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Mohammad Reza Shayesteh and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Correspondence to Mohammad Reza Shayesteh. The authors declare no competing interests. Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/. Reprints and permissions Mosalanezhad, R., Shayesteh, M.R. & Pourahmadi, M. Silvaco TCAD modeling, optical simulation, and optimization for high-current perovskite and u-CIGS tandem solar cells with efficiencies above 30%. 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India’s annual solar PV installations are expected to reach 50 GW during 2026–2030. Domestic PV module capacity reaches 144 GW, but raw material dependence persists Indian PV manufacturers outperformed Chinese peers in profitability during 2024–2025 TaiyangNews successfully concluded its flagship Solar Technology Conference India 2026 (STC.I 2026), held in New Delhi on February 5th & 6th, discussing the rapid evolution of India’s giga-scale solar manufacturing ecosystem and its path ahead. Among the highlights was a dedicated session titled Market Overview – Supply, Demand and Price Dynamics, where Indian analysts from EUPD Research (Rajan Kalsotra), Rystad Energy (Sushma Jagannath), Wood Mackenzie (Sureet Singh), and S&P Global (Abhyuday Tewari) shared their views on the latest developments in the world’s third-largest solar market, which has quickly emerged as a major module manufacturer as well. We have summarized the findings of this session in 10 key takeaways, listed below. The session opened with a clear message of India’s strong PV installation demand in the upcoming years. Looking at historical data from the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE), India’s yearly PV installation demand was hovering around 8-12 GW per year until 2022. However, the situation has changed drastically since 2024, and we now see 35 GW of PV already installed in FY 2025-26 (Apr-Jan). This momentum is forecast to continue, with the country expected to install approximately 50 GW per year on average and reach around 252 GW DC by 2030, according to EUPD Research. Takeaway: India targets 280 GW AC of solar PV installations by 2030, and the country has already installed 140 GW AC (as per MNRE) by January 2026. Drivers of this demand are the government’s reverse PV auction programs, high-cost conventional electricity, rapid expansion of the commercial and industrial (C&I) sector, and residential PV subsidy schemes. While this means India would need less than the current annual averages to reach its target, it’s likely that the country will exceed it. With India’s plans to commission around 8 GW of data centers by 2030, power demand is expected to increase starting in 2027, necessitating additional power generation capacity. Moreover, the rooftop market is also quickly developing now. However, grid infrastructure development and monitoring PV curtailment issues will also be important. Grid constraints are becoming a critical challenge both globally and in India. According to Rystad data, India curtailed over 250 GWh of solar PV in 2025, while China’s curtailment rose 60% year on year. This underscores the urgent need for expanded transmission capacity, energy storage, and grid flexibility to accommodate growing renewable generation. Takeaway: With rising demand for PV installations, there has also been a rise in PV curtailment issues. To address the issue, the Government of India has initiated the ‘Green Energy Corridor’ project, aimed at connecting solar-rich states with the national grid. This project has already entered Phase II, wherein 20 GW of renewable energy capacity will be integrated to the grid by the end of 2026. Under Phase II, the target is to develop 2,800 km of new corridors and 35 substations within the given timeline. With just 12 GW of local module manufacturing capacity in 2020, the country has expanded to 144 GW by 2025. This exponential growth has largely been driven by supportive government policies, including the Approved List of Models and Manufacturers (ALMM) mandate, the Production Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme, and the Basic Customs Duty (BCD) framework. According to industry estimates, local module manufacturing capacity could exceed 279 GW by 2030, and cell capacity could grow from 27 GW in 2025 to 171 GW by 2030. Takeaway: As domestic PV module supply grows faster than annual installation demand, an oversupply situation will develop in the near term. The forecast holds true for cells as well, which is expected to reach 171 GW by 2030. However, in contrast to the above graph, we believe wafer supply may increase drastically post-2028, accounting for ALMM List-III for wafers coming into effect by then. Even though India achieved 144 GW of module manufacturing capacity by 2025, it continues to depend on China for raw materials. In 2025 alone, India imported 49.5 GW of cells and 30 GW of wafers from China, as per EUPD Research. Takeaway: A review of historical data shows that in 2023, India imported approximately 16 GW of PV modules, despite a domestic manufacturing capacity of 8-10 GW. Module imports began to decline following the implementation of ALMM List I in April 2024. Cell imports are expected to follow a similar trend, with volumes declining after the implementation of ALMM List II in June 2026. Wafer imports are likely to continue until 2028, after which the government plans to introduce its ALMM III list (see also figure #3). However, for upstream components such as ingots and polysilicon, the supply gap is projected to persist even beyond 2030. As per Wood Mackenzie data, 97% of Indian module exports went to the US in 2024. However, exports dropped from 4.5 GW in 2024 to 2.9 GW in Q1-Q3 2025, due to tariff pressures and ongoing investigations. High US tariffs have already reduced export volumes, which are expected to decline further in 2026 unless both governments reach a mutual agreement. The US government has initiated Anti-Dumping (AD) and Countervailing Duty (CVD) investigations in August 2025 against India, Indonesia, and Laos. Whereas the preliminary CVD rate for India was set at 126% in February and a final determination is expected for July, the preliminary AD determination is expected for April (see India, Indonesia, Laos Solar Imports Face High US CVD Rates). Takeaway: India’s export concentration in the US is its biggest near-term vulnerability, unless the manufacturers diversify their export markets. Europe and Southeast Asia could be the next target markets for Indian suppliers. However, maintaining high quality standards, R&D in PV model upgrades, and price parity with their Chinese counterparts will be crucial for local manufacturers. Indian solar module manufacturers have been narrowing the long-standing cost gap with China, driven by expanding domestic production capacity, improved manufacturing efficiencies, and supportive government policies, according to a Fraunhofer report, presented by EUPD. Takeaway: While India is becoming more competitive, most manufacturers still use Chinese equipment, and Chinese manufacturers continue to sell at significantly lower prices. However, as major markets such as the US and potentially Europe implement protectionist measures against Chinese products, India will be well-positioned to benefit, provided it can consistently deliver high-quality products. From a pricing perspective, Indian module manufacturing costs remained approximately 11% higher than China in Q2 2025, underscoring China’s continued structural cost advantage driven by scale, supply-chain integration, and financing efficiencies. However, market pricing dynamics have shifted as well. The India-China spot price gap narrowed from 9 euro ¢/W in Q1 2024 to 4.9 euro ¢/W by February 2026. This has been possible only because of the Indian government’s policy support, market protection, and incentives for local manufacturing. Takeaway: Indian module prices have quickly decreased, narrowing the price gap to their Chinese competitors. But this was only possible because of government support. Another challenge will arise when the ALMM for cells will be implemented in June 2026, so that only domestic cells can be used for module production. The crucial question at that time will be whether the ratio of module performance to cost will remain sufficient to maintain, or further reduce, the price gap. However, as long as the Indian market is protected and resilience criteria in other markets offer export opportunities for Indian modules, prices will not be determined by cost. While leading Chinese module manufacturers mostly reported losses in 2024-2025 amid intense price competition and prolonged oversupply, Indian PV manufacturers demonstrated stronger profitability trends during this period. However, according to EUPD Research, this advantage could be short-term because of an aggravating overcapacity situation in India. Takeaway: Indian PV manufacturers are reporting higher profit margins due to import restrictions and PLI incentives compared with their Chinese competition. At the same time, Indian manufacturers are cautious, operating at only 50-60% of their capacity and accepting orders only on ‘made to order’ terms. However, the future well-being of Indian companies will depend largely on the development of trade barriers in the US, Europe, and other markets against Chinese incumbents. As the European Union intensifies its focus on supply-chain resilience, policy developments are creating opportunities for alternative manufacturing hubs. Under the EU’s Net-Zero Industry Act (NZIA), resilience-based procurement criteria could unlock an annual demand of approximately 3 GW, favoring diversified and non-dominant suppliers, according to EUPD Research. Takeaway: Indian PV manufacturers have an advantage in emissions intensity of module shipments to Europe over their Chinese competition. If India succeeds in keeping pace with next-generation PV technology, the European market could emerge as a stable and long-term export destination for its products. The session concluded with all 4 speakers sharing a common view that India’s PV growth is no longer centered on mere capacity expansion. Instead, the focus has shifted toward deeper upstream integration, continuous efficiency upgrades, stronger ESG transparency, diversification of export markets, alignment with energy storage solutions, and a more strategic, long-term positioning in the global landscape. And the common message that resonated across each presentation: Indian manufacturers must move from volume-driven growth to value-driven competitiveness. At STC.I 2026, the Indian market was framed not just as a growth narrative, but as a pivotal strategic turning point. Demand is strong Manufacturing is booming Global prices are under pressure Trade tensions are reshaping flows Europe is opening doors Profitability is fragile India is on the way to becoming the world’s second-biggest PV manufacturing hub. Export opportunities, price competitiveness, and keeping pace with next-generation PV technology will determine the future of this country’s export ambitions. TaiyangNews 2024
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