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A crewed mission to the Moon is set to launch, powered by a European-built solar array system. The mission will be the first of its kind in over five decades.
The spacecraft for the mission will rely on a European Service Module, which supplies propulsion, power, thermal control, and life support. This module incorporates four solar wings, each measuring seven meters in length. During launch, protective fairing panels will shield these arrays from extreme conditions.
Once in orbit, an automated process will deploy the wings. Each wing is constructed from three hinged panels made of carbon fibre. The panels are equipped with photovoltaic cells. In total, the system uses 15,000 gallium arsenide photovoltaic cells across the four arrays, producing a specified power output.
The solar wings are designed to rotate to maintain alignment with the sun. The installation of the arrays was finished last year, a process that took more than a week to complete.
This report provides a comprehensive view of the solar cells and light-emitting diodes industry in Italy, tracking demand, supply, and trade flows across the national value chain. It explains how demand across key channels and end-use segments shapes consumption patterns, while also mapping the role of input availability, production efficiency, and regulatory standards on supply.
Beyond headline metrics, the study benchmarks prices, margins, and trade routes so you can see where value is created and how it moves between domestic suppliers and international partners. The analysis is designed to support strategic planning, market entry, portfolio prioritization, and risk management in the solar cells and light-emitting diodes landscape in Italy.
The report combines market sizing with trade intelligence and price analytics for Italy. It covers both historical performance and the forward outlook to 2035, allowing you to compare cycles, structural shifts, and policy impacts.
This report provides a consistent view of market size, trade balance, prices, and per-capita indicators for Italy. The profile highlights demand structure and trade position, enabling benchmarking against regional and global peers.
The analysis is built on a multi-source framework that combines official statistics, trade records, company disclosures, and expert validation. Data are standardized, reconciled, and cross-checked to ensure consistency across time series.
All data are normalized to a common product definition and mapped to a consistent set of codes. This ensures that comparisons across time are aligned and actionable.
The forecast horizon extends to 2035 and is based on a structured model that links solar cells and light-emitting diodes demand and supply to macroeconomic indicators, trade patterns, and sector-specific drivers. The model captures both cyclical and structural factors and reflects known policy and technology shifts in Italy.
Each projection is built from national historical patterns and the broader regional context, allowing the report to show where growth is concentrated and where risks are elevated.
Prices are analyzed in detail, including export and import unit values, regional spreads, and changes in trade costs. The report highlights how seasonality, freight rates, exchange rates, and supply disruptions influence pricing and margins.
Key producers, exporters, and distributors are profiled with a focus on their operational scale, geographic footprint, product mix, and market positioning. This helps identify competitive pressure points, partnership opportunities, and routes to differentiation.
This report is designed for manufacturers, distributors, importers, wholesalers, investors, and advisors who need a clear, data-driven picture of solar cells and light-emitting diodes dynamics in Italy.
The market size aggregates consumption and trade data, presented in both value and volume terms.
The projections combine historical trends with macroeconomic indicators, trade dynamics, and sector-specific drivers.
Yes, it includes export and import unit values, regional spreads, and a pricing outlook to 2035.
The report benchmarks market size, trade balance, prices, and per-capita indicators for Italy.
Yes, it highlights demand hotspots, trade routes, pricing trends, and competitive context.
Making Data-Driven Decisions to Grow Your Business
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Dutch research institute TNO has developed what it said is the world’s first solar roof tile based on perovskite technology.
TNO researchers, in partnership with thin-film PV specialist ASAT, applied a perovskite PV module on foil to a curved composite roof tile, achieving a 12.4% conversion efficiency when combined.
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The scientists said the tile’s curved shape had only a minimal impact on the performance of the individual modules, which stood at 13.8% before being applied to the tile.
Ilke Dogan, senior scientist at TNO, said: “To the best of my knowledge, this is the world’s first electrically functioning solar roof tile concept based on flexible perovskite solar cells.”
TNO said the combination of flexible perovskite technology with a building material marked a step forward in integrating solar energy into the built environment more effectively.
The organisation also said the materials and processes used in the trial were ready for industrial application, operating under normal conditions and suitable for large-scale roll-to-roll production of flexible solar foils.
“This research line enables both customised solutions and large‑scale application of flexible solar foils. TNO has completed the full development pathway: from small test cells in the laboratory, to flexible modules measuring 10 by 10 centimetres, and ultimately to a perovskite solar roof tile that can be directly applied in practice,” TNO said in a statement.
Dogan added: “This allows roofs and infrastructure to generate sustainable electricity without compromising on design or aesthetics. This makes it an important step in the further development of solar energy in the built environment.”
Karl Kiel, founder of ASAT, said: “This demonstrator of perovskite solar PV integrated into our roof tiles shows that a commercial introduction is on the short-term horizon.”
TNO said its next step would be to continue improving the technology’s lifetime, reliability, and scalability, laying the foundations for the transition of flexible perovskite solar modules into commercial applications.
Last month TNO established a spin-out company, Perovion Technologies, to lead the commercialisation of flexible perovskite technologies.
US solar manufacturer T1 Energy produced 2.79GW of solar modules in 2025, in line with its guidance of 2.6-3GW for the year.
In the fourth quarter of 2025 alone, the company produced 1.17GW of module capacity at its Dallas assembly plant, which accounted for more than two-thirds (40%) of its total annual production, and generated record net sales of US$358.5 million, up from US$210 million in Q3 2025.
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As the company’s net sales increased from the previous quarter, T1 Energy reduced its net loss attributable to common stockholders in Q4 2025 to US$190 million, nearly half of the US$367 million registered in Q4 2024.
For the full fiscal year 2025, the manufacturer reported a net loss attributable to stockholders of US$380.8 million, down from the US$450.2 million reported in 2024. As of December 31, 2025, T1 had cash, cash equivalents and restricted cash of US$270.8 million, of which US$182.5 million was unrestricted cash.
Dan Barcelo, chairman and CEO at T1 Energy, said that during the last three months of 2025, the company also expanded its commercial partnerships with a long-term supply agreement with independent power producer (IPP) Treaty Oak Clean Energy.
The three-year contract will see T1 Energy supply at least 900MW of solar modules with US-made solar cells from its solar cell processing plant in Austin, at which the company began construction in mid-December 2025.
“We executed a series of transactions to preserve eligibility for Section 45X tax credits—culminating in our first successful sale of Section 45X tax credits to a US financial institution. Entering 2026, we’re building on this momentum as we execute our plan to build a vertically integrated US polysilicon solar supply chain and seek to position T1 Energy as a leading US energy producer and cash‑flow powerhouse,” added Barcelo.
The first sale of Section 45X tax credits that Barcelo highlighted was achieved in late December last year and was valued at US$160 million, at a price of US$0.91 per dollar of production tax credits generated
In the same week, T1 completed a series of transactions with Chinese manufacturer Trina Solar—from which they acquired the Dallas module assembly plant in 2024—and other parties to ensure T1’s eligibility to secure Section 45X tax credits in 2026 and its compliance with Foreign Entity of Concern (FEOC) regulation, which prohibits companies from benefitting from tax credits if they use components from companies based in or owned by countries deemed to be a threat to US security.
“The transactions included debt repayment, removal of Trina’s right to appoint a covered officer, a new intellectual property licensing agreement with Evervolt Green Energy Holding and the purchase of solar cells from a supplier that provided certifications of its non-FEOC status,” said T1 Energy of the deals.
Moreover, the company said the construction of its Austin, Texas, cell processing plant—dubbed G2_Austin—remains on schedule. The start of production for phase one is still scheduled for the fourth quarter of 2026 and would deliver an annual nameplate production of 2.1GW once fully operational. Before that, the manufacturer expects to reach financial close of G2_Austin during Q2 2026.
The company advanced on potential pathways in private and public markets in Q4 2025 to fund the remaining capital spending on the solar cell manufacturing plant. It estimated the remaining capital spending for phase one of the cell plant to be around US$350 million.
As construction of the Texas cell plant continues this year, T1 Energy said it secured solar cell supply for 2026 from an undisclosed international supplier that has certified its non-FEOC status.
For its 2026 outlook forecast, the manufacturer expects to produce between 3.1GW and 4.2GW of modules in 2026 using cells sourced from “an expanding global vendor network”. So far, the company has 3GW of module production contracted for 2026, but has highlighted that several factors could “materially” impact its 2026 sales.
Among the factors, T1 Energy mentioned the long-awaited ruling on the Section 232 polysilicon investigation (Premium access), the potential to source third-party cells above the high-end of T1’s targeted range and customers’ safe harbouring activity as developers work within the new regulatory framework.
As Australia’s renewable energy sector matures, the coupling of solar and storage is emerging as the dominant paradigm for large-scale projects. George Heynes reports on the transition from standalone solar to hybrid configurations.
Australia’s National Electricity Market (NEM) stands at a pivotal juncture as utility-scale solar developments undergo a fundamental transformation. The convergence of technological advancement, policy innovation and market dynamics is reshaping how developers approach large-scale renewable energy projects, with hybrid solar-plus-storage configurations emerging as the dominant paradigm for new developments.
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The shift represents more than a technological evolution; it signals a maturation of Australia’s renewable energy sector as it grapples with grid constraints, volatile pricing and the imperative to replace retiring coal-fired generation.
With over 50GW of solar PV already installed across the continent, the industry is entering a new phase where storage integration, sophisticated revenue optimisation and strategic policy frameworks will determine the success of future deployments.
The transition from standalone solar to hybrid configurations reflects a confluence of technical and economic pressures that have fundamentally altered project economics across the NEM. Grid constraints have emerged as a primary catalyst, forcing developers to reconsider traditional approaches to utility-scale development.
“We’re seeing many large-scale solar projects in the NEM transitioning to hybrid solar-plus-storage configurations due to grid constraints,” explains Sahand Karimi, CEO of OptiGrid, an Australian battery optimisation and trading intelligence platform.
“Each of the drivers outlined contributes to a preference towards hybrid developments to varying degrees; taken together, they can materially improve a project’s business case. These drivers include reducing curtailment, having a wider variety of route-to-market solutions, supportive policy environment and lower costs.”
Co-location offers multiple technical advantages that extend beyond simple grid integration. Neha Sinha, product manager for energy storage systems at Wärtsilä, emphasises the efficiency gains achievable through DC-coupled configurations: “The primary benefit of a DC-coupled solution is your round trip efficiency (RTE) benefit,” Sinha says.
“Your efficiency losses that come with converting from the solar field through an inverter to the batteries back through an inverter are significantly reduced if you can directly couple the solar to the battery storage.”
These efficiency improvements translate directly into enhanced project economics. Curtailment reduction represents perhaps the most immediate benefit, as developers can capture otherwise-lost generation during periods of grid congestion or negative pricing.
“In Australia in particular, with the negative pricing that we’ve seen out of solar plants, there are a lot of solar plants that aren’t co-located with storage, and don’t have anything that they can do with the excess solar that they’re producing at those negative prices,” Sinha notes.
Dramatic cost reductions in battery storage technology have further strengthened the economic case for hybridisation. As Karimi highlights, “Battery storage costs have reduced substantially in the past 12-18 months, reducing the cost burden of adding storage to the design.
“Hybridisation also enables shared infrastructure, particularly in DC-coupled designs, costs and improving overall project economics.”
The integration of battery storage fundamentally transforms the revenue potential for utility-scale solar developers, opening access to multiple income streams that were previously unavailable to standalone solar projects. This diversification represents a paradigm shift in how developers approach project financing and risk management.
Traditional solar projects in the NEM have historically required a majority of contracted revenue to achieve financial close, typically leaving only 20% of the project exposed to merchant risk.
The addition of storage changes this dynamic entirely, enabling developers to maintain larger merchant positions while accessing premium revenue streams.
“Adding battery storage opens up a plethora of additional revenue streams,” Karimi explains, outlining the expanded commercial opportunities available to hybrid projects.
These include hybrid power purchase agreements (PPAs), where buyers receive operational control of the combined asset, firmed or ‘shaped’ PPAs that deliver power according to specified profiles and virtual tolling agreements (VTA) that provide buyers with access to virtual battery capacity.
The sophistication of these revenue streams reflects the evolving maturity of the Australian energy market. Cap contracts protect buyers against spot price volatility above agreed-upon thresholds. At the same time, network support services provide additional income from distribution and transmission operators that are increasingly reliant on battery resources for grid stability.
However, this revenue diversification comes with increased complexity and risk. “While there is a much larger variety of options for hybrid projects, many come with increased risk,” Karimi warns. “Failing to manage a VTA or a cap contract effectively will not just see lower returns—it can create large losses due to the exposure to spot prices they create.”
The technical complexity of optimising hybrid operations requires sophisticated control systems and market forecasting capabilities. “Operating a battery energy storage system (BESS) is fundamentally different to operating solar and wind assets,” Karimi notes.
“A BESS is energy-limited, typically storing one to four hours of energy, and it must purchase its ‘fuel’ from the market. Because of this, returns are susceptible to both the accuracy of market forecasts and the quality of the trading optimisation.”
The scale of Australia’s utility-scale solar opportunity remains substantial despite market maturation. David Dixon, senior vice president and head of Australia renewables & power research at Rystad Energy,
forecasts steady growth across the NEM.
“The market size for utility solar deployment across the NEM is expected to be approximately 2-3GWdc per year to 2030,” he says.
The geographic distribution of hybrid developments across the NEM reflects a complex interplay of technical, economic and regulatory factors that vary significantly between regions. Understanding these regional dynamics is crucial for developers seeking to optimise project locations and maximise revenue potential.
New South Wales (NSW) has emerged as particularly attractive for hybrid developments, driven by the anticipated retirement of large coal-fired power stations and resulting price volatility. “NSW is one of the more attractive regions for batteries and hybrids as large coal plants are expected to close within the next few years,” Karimi observes.
The technical characteristics that make locations suitable for hybrid development extend beyond simple resource availability. Sites with higher levels of technical curtailment, where the addition of battery storage could materially influence the situation, represent prime opportunities.
Similarly, locations with poor marginal loss factors for solar generation can benefit significantly from the time-shifting capabilities of co-located storage.
Marginal loss factors are a mechanism used in electricity markets to account for energy lost as heat during the transmission of electricity through the power network.
They are a ratio that adjusts a generator’s revenue based on the network losses between its location and a regional reference node, influencing generator revenue and serving as an economic signal for efficient market operation.
A higher marginal loss factor rewards generators for being in a location that reduces losses, while a lower marginal loss factor penalises them.
“Locations with poor marginal loss factors for solar can make hybrid business cases more attractive as the time shifting of the plant generation improves the loss factor,” Karimi explains.
This technical consideration underscores the complex analysis necessary to identify optimal development sites in the current market environment.
Government policy initiatives have played a crucial role in accelerating hybrid development across the NEM, providing both financial incentives and regulatory certainty that enable developers to commit to more complex project configurations.
The Capacity Investment Scheme (CIS) represents perhaps the most significant policy intervention, offering long-term revenue support specifically designed to encourage the dispatchable generation of renewable energy.
The CIS provides long-term revenue certainty through 15-year two-way contracts that guarantee revenue floors while sharing upside performance – with both payments capped to protect taxpayer interests.
Its target was expanded to 40GW in July 2025 and now targets 26GW of renewable energy generation and 14GW of dispatchable storage through competitive tenders, offering dispatchable Capacity Investment Scheme Agreements (CISAs) for storage/ hybrid projects and generation CISAs for renewables. Hybrid solar-plus-storage projects can access either contract type based on specific requirements.
The re-election of the Australian Labor government in May 2025 provided crucial policy continuity for the CIS programme. “The re-election of the Australian Labor government in May 2025 provided certainty that the CIS policy would continue in its current form,” Karimi notes.
However, the effectiveness of these policies in driving deployment remains mixed. Dixon adds that the CIS faces additional implementation challenges.
“The CIS will struggle to give lenders confidence to finance many solar projects, as many proponents have bid too low and thus the banks aren’t willing to lend to these projects,” Dixon explains.
He emphasises that “by far the most critical milestone is getting an economic PPA from a utility (Stanwell or AGL) or industrial player (e.g. Rio Tinto) that the banks can lend against.”
The Solar Sunshot initiative represents another significant policy intervention, though industry expectations for the programme’s scale remain ambitious.
Brett Hallam, associate professor and research director for Advanced Hydrogenation at the University of NSW (UNSW), acknowledges both the programme’s importance and its limitations: “The amount we were hoping for as a package is much more than what the Sunshot initiative has been to date. But at least it’s a start, and it showed their intention to commit to establishing the industry here.”
The evolution of Australia’s distributed energy resources provides crucial context for understanding utility-scale developments within the broader energy transition. The country’s leadership in residential solar adoption and battery storage deployment creates both opportunities and challenges for large-scale renewable energy projects.
Nigel Morris, chief strategy officer at the Smart Energy Council, emphasises Australia’s unique position in global renewable energy deployment: “We are the canary in the coal mine for the rest of the world, we have some of the most sophisticated and advanced distributed, clean and distributed energy resources in the form of residential rooftops and now storage in the world.”
The scale of distributed deployment is remarkable, with some postcodes achieving 70% solar penetration rates, Morris notes. This distributed capacity increasingly operates under sophisticated control systems that enable centralised management and market participation through virtual power plants (VPPs).
“We are now building what I would argue is one of the largest and most sophisticated, fully controlled, not fully controlled, but able to be controlled … resources of solar and batteries in the world,” Morris explains.
The regulatory framework has evolved to accommodate this distributed complexity, albeit with challenges. “The regulatory regime, firstly, has adapted. Adapted badly and slowly and in defiance of solar for most of my career,” Morris acknowledges.
However, recent improvements in dynamic control mechanisms and emergency backstop systems demonstrate a growing sophistication in regulatory management of distributed resources.
The rapid evolution of hybrid technology platforms reflects both market demand and technological maturation across multiple components of integrated solar-plus-storage systems. DC-coupled configurations represent the current frontier of technical development, offering efficiency advantages that translate directly into improved project economics.
The complexity of DC-DC converter technology has historically limited widespread adoption, but recent advances have made utility-scale deployment increasingly viable.
“DC to DC converters are just an added cost to your system and can be quite challenging to work with. And the development of that technology over the years has kind of worked in favour of where we are today in the market,” Sinha explains.
The technical challenges of voltage management between solar and battery systems require sophisticated control capabilities. “The DC to DC converter itself is the biggest functionality, which is the voltage metering. The reason you need it is that there are voltage differences between your solar module and your battery. So, you need this kind of buck boost capability to be able to manage the differences between the two units,” Sinha details.
Grid interaction capabilities remain essentially unchanged between AC and DC-coupled configurations, as the inverter continues to manage grid communication and support services. “You don’t see a significantly different interaction with the grid, because you still have the inverter standing between your battery system and the grid,” Sinha notes. This consistency simplifies grid integration while maximising the efficiency benefits of DC coupling.
The evolution toward hybrid-by-design represents a fundamental shift in project development approaches. “As we see more and more solar plants being deployed, as we see curtailment issues, as we see decommissioning a coal plant in favour of these systems, it’s becoming increasingly clear that you need to be co-located with batteries to maximise the potential of your system,” Sinha observes.
The commercial environment for utility-scale solar development has undergone a fundamental shift from the long-term, low-risk contracting models that previously dominated the sector. Developers must now navigate shorter contract tenures, increased merchant exposure and more sophisticated risk management requirements.
“In the NEM, you used to be able to get a 15- to 25-year solar PPA at an attractive price and with most of the market risks transferred to the buyer. That isn’t the environment now, and we are doubtful to return to it anytime soon,” Karimi explains. This shift requires developers to develop new capabilities in market analysis, revenue optimisation and risk management.
The new commercial paradigm demands comfort with shorter contract tenures and greater merchant exposure. “It’s not unusual now to see two to five-year contracts, and most offtakers strongly prefer not to sign anything over ten years,” Karimi notes. This trend toward shorter contracting periods reflects both buyer risk aversion and the rapid pace of technological and market evolution.
Success in this environment requires a sophisticated understanding of merchant revenue potential and associated risks. “Understanding the return potential for merchant storage/hybrid assets, the contracting options available to you, and the associated risks” becomes essential for developer success, according to Karimi.
The complexity of modern energy markets necessitates strategic partnerships with specialised service providers. “The NEM is the most volatile and rapidly evolving electricity market in the world. While there are significant opportunities, capturing those opportunities requires a profound understanding of the physical and financial market dynamics,” Karimi emphasises.
For developers considering storage additions to existing solar pipeline projects, the advice is clear: “Unless you are confident in your ability to negotiate a PPA at a strike price that meets your commercial targets and has sufficient negative price period settlement protections built in, I would strongly recommend exploring how the addition of storage to your pipeline projects could influence the business case,” Karimi advises.
Australia’s utility-scale solar sector is at a transformative moment, as hybrid configurations become the dominant development model across the NEM. The convergence of technical advancement, policy support and commercial necessity has created an environment where storage integration is increasingly essential for project viability.
The success of future developments will depend on developers’ ability to navigate increased complexity while capturing the enhanced revenue opportunities that hybrid configurations provide. As Sinha emphasises: “When you are thinking about any project that involves storage, the key metric that you should be looking at is useable energy and how much energy you can get out of your system.”
The policy environment, while supportive, faces potential disruption from changing political priorities. The industry’s continued growth will require sustained government commitment to programmes like the CIS and Solar Sunshot initiative, alongside regulatory frameworks that accommodate increasing system complexity.
As Australia continues its renewable energy transition, the utility-scale solar sector’s evolution towards hybrid configurations represents both a technical achievement and a commercial necessity.
The developers who successfully navigate this transformation will play a crucial role in delivering the dispatchable renewable energy generation required to replace retiring coal-fired power stations while maintaining grid reliability and affordability.
The hybrid future is not merely an option for Australian solar developers – it has become an imperative for success in an increasingly sophisticated and competitive energy market. Those who embrace this complexity while leveraging the expertise of specialised partners will be best positioned to capitalise on the opportunities ahead.
Westby Area Middle School students and Principal Mike Weninger discuss how they’ll hang lights inside the Bekkum Bubbles on the Westby library patio, Friday, Nov. 22, 2024.
A worker with Olson Solar Energy of Onalaska installs panels on the Bekkum Memorial Library’s roof March 19.
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New solar panels have been installed at Bekkum Memorial Library in Westby. The former panels were removed last summer when the south-side roof had be redone.
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A worker with Olson Solar Energy of Onalaska installs panels on the Bekkum Memorial Library’s roof March 19.
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New solar panels have been installed at Bekkum Memorial Library in Westby. The former panels were removed last summer when the south-side roof had be redone.
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Gov. Ned Lamont criticized the loss of farmland and other open space for the construction of Connecticut’s largest solar array on Tuesday. But he stopped short of expressing support for a moratorium on further solar development in towns at the epicenter of the state’s solar industry.
Lamont’s visit to East Windsor — home to the 120-megawatt Gravel Pit Solar project and several smaller arrays — was arranged by local critics of the developments. They say their community has been inundated with solar panels, which have taken over farms, made noise and caused other quality-of-life problems that alter the town’s rural character.
Last month, the Connecticut Siting Council signed off on a 30-megawatt expansion that would add an additional 150 acres to Gravel Pit’s footprint in East Windsor. The town has already pledged to appeal the ruling.
“I love clean renewable power that’s also affordable, but I also love open space, protecting open space,” Lamont said after being driven on a tour around the sprawling facility. “I don’t think we have that balance right, right now.”
The tour highlighted a tricky political question facing Lamont and other Democrats who are supportive of the state’s long-term climate goals: how to build clean, renewable sources of electricity without angering the people living alongside those projects.
Residents in East Windsor and surrounding river valley towns, such as Enfield and Ellington, say they’ve already done their part playing host to large solar arrays. Together, the six-town region produces nearly a third of the state’s grid-scale solar output.
“Too much of a good thing can become very bad,” said state Sen. Saud Anwar, D-South Windsor. “We’re seeing that something that started with a good concept is overwhelming our community.”
Anwar and the principal organizer of the tour, state Rep. Jaime Foster, D-Ellington, have sponsored House Bill 5551, which would allow officials in any town that’s home to or abutting a solar facility larger than 100 megawatts to veto new projects within their borders. (Under those parameters, the bill would only apply to East Windsor and neighboring towns.)
Asked after his tour whether he would support such a policy, Lamont hedged.
“I’d like to do something broader than that, so we’re not just taking care of one or two towns. But what I can do statewide is to make sure that this doesn’t happen again, and make sure that any of these things that aren’t yet developed we can preserve,” Lamont said.
The governor also expressed dismay at the name the developers chose for Gravel Pit Solar, which came from an old quarry on which a portion of the array was built. “I saw a beautiful open space, beautiful fields, and this ought to be the last place you want to develop,” Lamont said.
A spokesperson for Gravel Pit’s owner, DESRI Holdings, declined to comment on Lamont’s visit.
Decisions on where to place large solar arrays and other power projects fall to the Connecticut Siting Council, which was formed in the 1970s take over a process that had previously been subject to the use of eminent domain by utility companies.
State law allows the Siting Council to consider a variety of factors in its decisions, including a project’s impact on agriculture, forests and scenic areas, as well as its potential impact on air and water quality. Other local concerns, such as the effect on property values or municipal tax tolls, are not part of the council’s evaluation criteria.
Melanie Bachman, executive director of the Siting Council, said in an email that none of the land used by Gravel Pit Solar had been set aside for protection under Connecticut’s open space and farmland preservation programs. In addition, she noted that the developers had pledged to allow sheep grazing and beekeeping on parts of the property, while also donating 70 acres of land to East Windsor for conservation.
Bachman declined to comment specifically on the governor’s remarks on the project.
In 2023, Lamont vetoed legislation that would have allowed municipalities to appoint a nonvoting member to weigh in on projects before the Siting Council. In his veto message, the governor explained that the bill could give opponents within a town access to sensitive information about applicants, while also eroding the council’s authority to approve “climate-positive projects,” such as transmission lines and solar facilities.
Still, lawmakers have put forward a similar bill this session to give towns a greater role in Siting Council decisions.
Lamont declined to say Tuesday whether he would veto that legislation, Senate Bill 144, if it reaches his desk. Supporters say they’ve added language requiring nonvoting members to abide by the council’s confidentiality rules, in order to ease some of the governor’s concerns.
Foster and her allies have proposed several ways to alter the structure of the Siting Council to give towns a greater voice, while still preserving its ability to preempt local control. Those ideas include having a permanent member with experience in municipal government, or seat for a representative of the regional council of governments in the area where a project is proposed.
“I have long held the assumption that the current membership of the Siting Council… have a sort of myopic view on what holds weight in their consideration, and I think that’s pretty clearly demonstrated in their approvals,” Foster said. “To diversify the membership and perspective on the board would be helpful.”
In testimony submitted to lawmakers last month, Bachman argued that the Siting Council has already undergone legislative changes in recent years to alter the makeup of its members and provide for greater input by local officials.
She warned that further changes, such as those proposed in H.B. 5551 and S.B. 144, would threaten the independence of the council to act on behalf of all Connecticut residents, as well as the environment.
In East Windsor, however, residents expressed frustration with the Siting Council’s repeated approvals of new solar projects. At one stop along his tour Tuesday, Lamont was met with a large, hand-painted sign affixed to a trailer urging him to “stop solar saturation.”
The sign was the work of Amanda Berube, who lives across the street from a smaller solar array owned by NextEra that has faced persistent complaints from neighbors who say it emits a loud buzzing noise during the day. In addition, the array experienced a brush fire last year that was attributed to nearby utility equipment.
Berube and her neighbors are also alarmed over the latest proposal from Gravel Pit’s owners to develop another, 100-megawatt array known as Saltbox Solar on farmland within East Windsor and Ellington.
While the developers have yet to submit Saltbox Solar to the Siting Council for approval, online plans show it would leave Berube’s subdivision surrounded by solar panels on three sides.
“It would just be devastating to our neighborhood, it would be devastating to the neighborhood in Ellington,” and to local dairy farmers who use the land to grow corn to feed their cows, she said. “So I just really hope that something can be done, that the legislation can pass, so that we can finally put an end to this.”
John Moritz is a reporter for the Connecticut Mirror. Copyright 2026 @ CT Mirror (ctmirror.org).
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China ends tax rebates for solar exports Dialogue Earth
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Danish independent power producer (IPP) European Energy has inaugurated the 108MW Lancaster Solar Farm in northern Victoria.
The IPP has signed what it called a “long-term” power purchase agreement (PPA) with technology giant Apple to sell power generated at the project, but did not provide further details on the length of the deal.
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As part of the deal, the company signed a memorandum of understanding (MoU) with the Yorta Yorta Nation Aboriginal Corporation to cooperate on future renewable energy projects across land belonging to the Yorta Yorta group in Victoria.
The project inauguration, and the signing of the MoU with the Yorta Yorta people, coincided with the Danish royal couple’s state visit to Australia; Danish King Frederik X, Danish Queen Mary and Australian Minister of Energy Chris Bowen were present for the MoU signing. European Energy said this MoU would result in initiatives to support “workforce participation, Indigenous business engagement and initiatives aligned with the self-determined priorities of the Yorta Yorta people”.
“This agreement recognises the Yorta Yorta people as Traditional Owners and sets out how we will work together to protect culture, respect Country and ensure our people share in the benefits of renewable energy development,” said chair of the Yorta Yorta National Aboriginal Corporation, Trent Nelson.
The news follows European Energy securing approval for a 1.1GW solar project in Queensland, as the company looks to expand its Australian presence. The company currently has a development pipeline of 10GW of solar, wind and battery energy storage systems (BESS) in Australia, and is at the late stage of development for both the 131MW Winton North solar project in Victoria and the 31MW Mulwala solar facility in New South Wales.
Crisis Management
研究成果 Research Results
Researchers successfully capture singlet-fission–amplified excitons with a molybdenum-based emitter, achieving 130% quantum yield and opening a path beyond solar cell efficiency limits.
Fukuoka, Japan—In the fight against climate change, solar power is a promising alternative to fossil fuels. Every second, Earth receives an enormous amount of energy from the Sun. Yet solar cells capture only a fraction of it, constrained by a “physical ceiling” that seemed impossible to break.
In a paper published in the Journal of the American Chemical Society on March 25, a research team led by Kyushu University in Japan, in collaboration with Johannes Gutenberg University (JGU) Mainz in Germany, used a molybdenum-based metal complex called “spin-flip” emitter to harvest multiplied energy from singlet fission (SF)—a “dream technology” for light conversion. This technology pushes energy conversion efficiency to about 130%, surpassing the 100% barrier and opening new possibilities for higher-performance solar cells.
To picture how a solar cell generates electricity, imagine a relay race among tiny particles. Photons from sunlight strike a semiconductor and pass their energy to electrons, activating them and driving an electric current.
But the “runners” in sunlight vary in ability. Lower-energy infrared photons cannot excite electrons, while higher-energy ones, like blue light, lose their excess as heat. As a result, solar cells can use only about one-third of the sunlight. This ceiling, known as the Shockley–Queisser limit, has long challenged scientists.
“We have two main strategies to break through this limit,” says Yoichi Sasaki, Associate Professor at Kyushu University’s Faculty of Engineering. “One is to convert lower-energy infrared photons into higher energy visible photons. The other, what we explore here, is to use SF to generate two excitons from a single exciton photon.”
Normally, one photon can generate at most one spin-singlet exciton after electronic excitation. SF can split this high-energy singlet exciton into two lower-energy spin-triplet excitons, theoretically doubling the energy. While some organic semiconductors like tetracene exhibit this process, capturing the SF-born excitons remains challenging.
“The energy can be easily ‘stolen’ by a mechanism called Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) before multiplication occurs,” Sasaki explains. “We therefore needed an energy acceptor that selectively captures the multiplied triplet excitons after fission.”
The team turned to metal complexes—molecules whose structures can be flexibly designed—and discovered that a molybdenum-based “spin-flip” emitter serves as an ideal harvester. In such molecules, an electron flips its spin during absorption or emission of near-infrared light, enabling the system to accept the triplet energy produced in SF. By carefully tuning the energy levels, the researchers suppressed the wasteful FRET process, allowing the multiplied excitons from SF to be selectively extracted.
“We could not have reached this point without the Heinze group from JGU Mainz,” Sasaki says. Adrian Sauer, a graduate student from the group visiting Kyushu University on exchange and the paper’s second author, brought the team’s attention to a material long studied there, leading to the collaboration.
By pairing this complex with tetracene-based materials in solution, the team successfully harvested energy, achieving quantum yields of around 130%, meaning roughly 1.3 molybdenum-based metal complexes were excited per photon absorbed. This exceeds the conventional 100% limit, indicating that the system generated and harvested more energy carriers than photons received.
This work establishes a new design strategy for exciton amplification, though the team notes that current experiments remain at the proof-of-concept stage. Looking ahead, they plan to bring the two types of materials together in the solid state, aiming for efficient energy transfer and eventual integration into working solar cells.
Meanwhile, they hope the study will inspire further exploration at the intersection of singlet fission and metal complexes, with potential applications ranging from solar cells and LEDs to next-generation quantum technologies.
###
For more information about this research, see “Exploring Spin-State Selective Harvesting Pathways from Singlet Fission Dimers to a Near-Infrared Emissive Spin-Flip Emitter,” Percy Gonzalo Sifuentes-Samanamud, Adrian Sauer, Aki Masaoka, Yuta Sawada, Yuya Watanabe, Ilias Papadopoulos, Katja Heinze, Yoichi Sasaki, Nobuo Kimizuka, Journal of the American Chemical Society, https://doi.org/10.1021/jacs.5c20500
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Yoichi Sasaki, Associate Professor
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九州大学Kyushu University
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LONGi has launched LONGi ONE, an integrated solar-plus-storage product strategy for grid-scale, and commercial and industrial projects, which will be supported by a growing network of 30 new service centres opening in key locations globally by 2028.
Image: LONGi Solar
Chinese clean energy manufacturer LONGi has launched LONGi ONE, an integrated solar-plus-storage system strategy that combines BC solar technology with 5S storage technology to create a one-stop-stop solar generator service, to be made available through its growing network of 30 service centres the company intends opening globally by 2028.
The LONGi ONE strategy shifts from assembled systems to a native integration and scenario-based empowerment, a company statement said.
The concept means that one LONGi product family would cover all project scenarios from GWh-scale power plants, that could use OneBank 2.0 and OneMatrix 2.0, to commercial and industrial (C&I) applications using Hi-MO ONE.
Artificial intelligence (AI) in the system, would steer an ‘intelligent decision-making engine’ to actively manage the value of green electricity.
The strategy ultimately makes LONGi a one-stop-shop across the lifecycle of a project.
LONGi ONE Products
For utility-scale projects, OneBank 2.0 offers a fully integrated AC/DC storage solution featuring advanced safety design.
Its proprietary iCCS technology enables millisecond-scale (ms) fault detection and isolation, reducing system-level failure rates by 60% and cutting pre-commissioning time by over 30%.
OneMatrix 2.0 provides a flexible, modular approach for plant-level deployment, supporting multiple duration scenarios (2h/4h/8h) while reducing deployment time by 20-30% and lowering lifecycle costs.
For C&I users, Hi-MO One—paired with the EnergyOne platform—delivers 24.8% module efficiency and up to 90.3% system efficiency.
With response times under 20 ms and AI-driven energy management, it enables intelligent operation and optimised returns.
2830 Plan
LONGi has also launched its 2830 Plan, which aims to establish 30 localised service centres across key global markets by 2028, providing end-to-end lifecycle services and ensuring fast and localised support.
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The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Solar Energy Technologies Office (SETO) supports innovative research focused on overcoming the current technological and commercial barriers for cadmium telluride (CdTe) solar modules. Below is a summary of how a CdTe solar module is made, recent advances in cell design, and the associated benefits. Learn how solar PV works.
CdTe is a material made from the combination of two elements: Cadmium (Cd) and Tellurium (Te). It plays a critical role of light absorption—hence why a CdTe solar cell is named after it. However, a cell needs more than just the CdTe material to function.
CdTe is a material made from the combination of two elements: Cadmium (Cd) and Tellurium (Te). It plays a critical role of light absorption—hence why a CdTe solar cell is named after it. However, a cell needs more than just the CdTe material to function.
In this “thin-film” technology, a thin layer of CdTe absorbs light, which excites charged particles called electrons; when the electrons move, they create an electric current. CdTe cells are referred to as thin-film because they are more absorptive than other types of photovoltaics (e.g. silicon solar cells) and therefore require thinner layers to absorb the same amount of light.
In a solar cell, the CdTe absorber is attached to other materials, which allows electric current to flow through the absorber layer into the metal contacts and be collected as sustainable electricity. In modern cells, cadmium selenium tellurium (CdSeTe) is often used in conjunction with CdTe to improve light absorption. Learn more about how solar cells work.
CdTe solar cells are the second most common photovoltaic (PV) technology after crystalline silicon, representing 21% of the U.S. market and 4% of the global market in 2022. In the last 15 years, CdTe deployment has increased from the megawatt scale to the gigawatt scale as modules have more than doubled in efficiency.
The manufacturing process for cadmium telluride modules can be split into 4 main steps:
Cadmium and tellurium are byproducts of mining operations for zinc and copper, respectively. The waste from these mining processes have so far produced more than enough Cd and Te, so no extra mining is needed. The raw materials are refined to create pure Cd and Te.
CdTe vapor is deposited onto a coated conductive glass sheet. Several rounds of laser scribing and material deposition and treatment result in the final cell structure.
The completed cell is turned into a module by adding electrical contacts to enable wiring to other modules, edge sealant and a layer of encapsulant for weather-proofing, and a final glass backsheet.
The module is fit into a frame, attached to other modules, and deployed to start producing clean electricity.
SETO supports research across all aspects of CdTe technology. Research topics include maximizing the efficiency of CdTe using fundamental science, improving the design of full modules, and assessing the supply chain. SETO investments have helped commercialize CdTe technology. Projects are also developing next-generation cells that combine CdTe with other established PV materials, such as silicon. SETO released the Cadmium Telluride PV Perspective Paper in January 2025, outlining the state of CdTe PV technology and SETO’s priorities to reduce costs, address materials availability, and support the scale-up of CdTe within the domestic utility-scale PV market.
The CdTe Accelerator Consortium is currently SETO’s largest initiative to accelerate CdTe development. Coordinated by NREL, this $20 million collaboration includes five companies and universities working to create a technology roadmap and perform technical research with the goal of increasing CdTe cell efficiencies to 24% by 2025 and 26% by 2030.
Additionally, several of SETO’s funding programs support CdTe technologiesThis was an empty link: ::
Learn more about SETO’s PV research and how PV technologies work.
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Solar equipment is getting more expensive despite a foreseen drop in demand, why? Profit by Pakistan Today
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PINE BELT, Miss. (WDAM) – Jasper County residents learned more Tuesday about the second proposed solar farm in the community,
The farm, known as Shubuta Creek, is set to span over 1,700 acres on County Road 41 near Pachuta.
The company behind the project is Grenergy, U.S.A.
“We’re making sure that we check all the boxes and do everything we need to make sure that this project is not only safely implemented, but also safe for the community as well,” Grenergy Public Policy Manager Arthur Fisher said.
Fisher shared that the farm will be used to provide wholesale solar energy to utility companies like Mississippi Power.
“The decision will be on Mississippi Power on how they go about distributing that power, but the most important thing will be helping Mississippi support as much infrastructure as possible,” Fisher said.
Before the meeting, residents raised concerns over the farm’s potential impact on the local environment.
Fisher said measures are in place to minimize that impact, on top of the necessary permits required.
“They [Grenergy] go through a series of studies with both the development company, the power company, as well and a bunch of regulations that we have to follow,” Fisher said.
Another concern brought up was the condition construction could leave the roadways in.
Grenergy is currently in an agreement with the county to fix any damage left behind.
“To just make sure that there’s enough roadway to be able to have this construction go into play as this timeline happens and ensure people are able to travel safely to and from their homes as well,” Fisher said.
Leaders predict the farm will generate around $60 million in tax revenue for the county over its expected 40-year lifespan.
The project is now awaiting approval from the Mississippi Public Service Commission.
“We’ll analyze that, process that, ask some more questions, and then we’ll take it before the whole commission and vote on it,” Southern District Commissioner Wayne Carr said.
Carr said he still has questions about who will oversee the project on a local level.
” We really don’t have that inspector capacity, and that’s something we’re trying to address at the commission, talking to the different parts of government,” Carr said.
If approved, construction for the project could start by the end of this year.
Fisher said Grenergy expects the farm to be operating by April 2029.
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Copyright 2026 WDAM. All rights reserved.
North Angle Solar Farm in rural Cambridgeshire was supposed to provide a green alternative to oil and gas and bring in millions to the county council to fund local services. But after years of delays, the £34m project is so far making less money than it was hoped and now an internal report, obtained by the BBC, lays bare some of the failures behind the scheme.
Take a long, windy walk through the Fens it is difficult to miss North Angle Solar Farm amidst the flat lands, nestled between the east Cambridgeshire settlements of Soham and Wicken.
Through an unlocked gate, David Woricker, the chair of Soham Town Council, walks into the community orchard built by Cambridgeshire County Council alongside the solar farm, examining the current state of the trees.
He is concerned the trees "aren't being cared for properly and therefore aren't going to survive and thrive".
"What we don't want to see is an attempt at planting some trees and then letting that fall away and it becoming wasteland when it could be a massive asset for both the communities of Soham and Wicken," Woricker says.
A few hundred metres away down a newly-built path that stops short is North Angle Solar Farm, spread across 188 acres (76 hectares) and reportedly the largest solar farm in the county, it aims to provide electricity for 12,000 homes.
It was built by the county council after it had success with a smaller-scale Triangle Solar Farm in Soham.
With budgets ever tightening, the authority hoped North Angle would generate a revenue of £62m over 30 years, starting from the 2021-22 financial year.
The farm has been operating since November 2024, and a spokesperson for the Liberal Democrat-run council said: "This income contributes to our overall budget, supporting the delivery of essential local services including adult social care."
Woricker, a former Green Party candidate who runs the nearby South Angle Farm but was speaking to the BBC in his capacity as chair of the town council, said the council was told the money generated would go towards services and reducing council tax bills.
But the BBC has now obtained an internal county council report that gives an insight into the problems at North Angle Solar Farm.
The project received planning permission in 2020 and it was estimated to take between six and nine months to build.
Construction began in September 2021 and the project was finished in November 2024, Cambridgeshire County Council said.
It was not the only major energy project the authority was embarking upon around this time – another was a heat network scheme trying to help the rural oil-dependent village of Swaffham Prior eight miles (12.8km) from Soham become more green.
The report detailed a desire for a private underground cable to connect the two projects together, providing energy from North Angle Solar Farm to the heat network.
But the review said: "There is no evidence that the decision to develop a private cable was subject to a full risk assessment, nor challenged by an appropriate level of management."
It called this "a significant governance failure" and added the cable contributed to the costs of building the solar farm rise from £24.4m to £34.1m.
The BBC understands the council had to pay each landowner between North Angle and Swaffham Prior to put in the cable.
Other concerns highlighted in the report included that there was no project risk register – which is designed to track possible issues – until December 2022, "after delays and risks had been realised, so there was a failure to manage and monitor risks in line with the internal policy, before they could be realised".
The review also said there was "no evidence to suggest that best practice to avoid overstating benefits and understating costs (optimism bias) was followed".
To the contrary, it said the case for the solar farm should have increased costs and delayed or decreased benefits.
The council has made £2.1m from the project so far, which according to its own documents is less than it thought it would.
The national grid was built to deliver power generated by coal and gas plants near the country's major cities and towns, and it does not always have sufficient capacity in the cables that carry electricity around the country to get the new renewable electricity generated from rural areas.
These solar farms do get compensation payments, known as curtailment, but recent county council papers said there was a £1.41m "income loss" in 2025-26 from North Angle Solar Farm.
"This is mainly due to curtailment from the electricity network operator being much more significant than anticipated, as the network doesn't have the capacity to absorb all the generation during peak hours," the papers said.
The council said it had not revised it forecast about how much money the project would make "as it is too early in the life of the project to do so".
Mark Goldsack, a Conservative councillor for Soham North and Isleham on Cambridgeshire County Council, believed the project "was a good idea".
"However, as highlighted in the report, governance and ownership of the project, like the impact of construction traffic on local residents, was poorly controlled.
"Procrastination is a sin but turning a blind eye and leaving officers to hold the fort is weak leadership resulting in the reported poor bias of optimism to the positive outcomes and seriously lacking governance."
A spokesperson for the council said: "It's important to emphasise that this project is a 30-year investment, and the site has only been operating for just over a year.
"Like all renewable energy schemes, performance will vary over time, but we continue to monitor output closely and work proactively with UK Power Networks (UKPN) and our operations and maintenance contractor to optimise performance.
"UKPN uses flexible grid connections to help manage the electricity network, avoiding oversupply at times of low demand. This means that at certain points in the year UKPN can temporarily limit how much power is exported to the grid. This is a common and established part of how distributed renewable energy generators are managed nationally, and does not change the long-term, 30-year business case for the solar farm."
The council said the project's community path "has been delivered" and would be formally opened this summer and that any trees that die in the community orchard would be replaced.
But what of future projects like this?
The county council was granted planning permission for a smaller-scale solar farm to the south of Peterborough in January 2021, but added "the timing for the delivery of this is not yet confirmed".
Follow Cambridgeshire news on BBC Sounds, Facebook, Instagram and X.
Developers say the plans meet current fire regulations and the unit will have a 35-year life span.
Morning regional TV services will come from the BBC London studio.
St Mary's Street and Southoe Road in Farcet will close as council takes advantage of the school break.
Tom Highland, from Highland Group, says some petrol station staff are being abused by customers.
It will run services that have been provided by two community health trusts.
Copyright 2026 BBC. All rights reserved. The BBC is not responsible for the content of external sites. Read about our approach to external linking.
by University of Sharjah
edited by Sadie Harley, reviewed by Robert Egan
scientific editor
associate editor
Schematic of experimental setup and Experimental prototype: (A) Standard exhaust, (B) Exhaust without fins, (C) Solar PV Panel with back cooling from exhaust air, (D) Reference Solar PV Panel without cooling. Credit: Prof. Chaouki Ghenai
Scientists at the University of Sharjah have secured a U.S. patent (US12341471B2) for an innovative cooling system designed to enhance the performance of solar photovoltaic (PV) panels.
The researchers claim that their invention can significantly reduce energy losses caused by high operating temperatures—an issue that plagues solar power systems, particularly in hot climates.
The patented system focuses on thermal management in solar PV modules. It is specifically engineered to utilize the hot waste air expelled by centralized air conditioning systems to cool the rear surfaces of solar panels.
The dual-purpose approach not only addresses excess heat but also repurposes waste energy that would otherwise be lost.
“This novel cooling technology will help reduce the operating temperature of solar panels, boost the power output, and improve solar PV module efficiency,” said Chaouki Ghenai, Professor of Sustainable and Renewable Energy Engineering at Sharjah University, and the lead inventor.
“This invention not only recovers lost power output in hot and arid settings, but also extends the life of assets, and makes it possible to implement new hybrid systems, which collectively reduce the levelized cost of energy and improve overall solar plant efficiency.”
Solar panels generate electricity through the photovoltaic effect, where light striking the surface of semiconductor-based solar cells is converted into electrical energy.
However, not all absorbed sunlight is converted—much of it becomes heat, raising the panel’s temperature and reducing its efficiency.
In their patent application, the inventors highlight that irradiance and temperature are critical environmental factors affecting solar panel performance.
They write, “The solar cell absorbs sunlight, and a partial amount of light is converted to electrical energy, while the remaining portion generates heat and increases the temperature.”
According to the researchers, current solar energy systems face two major challenges: 1) Thermal degradation, where rising temperatures reduce energy output, and 2) soiling, the accumulation of dust and debris, especially in arid and high-temperature regions.
They also cite optical and ohmic losses as additional factors that hinder solar cell efficiency.
The system has a supporting structure positioned at a predefined distance in front of the fan to hold one or more solar panels. Credit: https://patents.google.com/patent/US12341471B2/en
Prof. Ghenai attributes a range of advantages to the invention, especially in hot and arid regions. “In hot, desert regions with abundant solar resources but high ambient temperatures, solar PV cooling is necessary to maximize electrical energy generation, asset health and longevity, and reduce soiling and maintenance.
“In hot and dry climates, solar PV panels can be cooled using the exhaust air from the building’s Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning (HVAC) system. This reduces the temperature of the solar cells, recovers up to 10% more solar power production, and extends the life of the panels.”
However, the researchers emphasize in their application that thermal effects are the most significant, stating, “Among all system losses, the thermal effect is the most contributing factor in the deterioration of the performance of the solar system. As the temperature rises from standard testing conditions (STC), the output of SPV panels degrades accordingly.”
In some regions, solar panels operate at temperatures as high as 70°C, which can result in up to a 20% loss in energy output, they note.
The inventors maintain that even a 1°C increase in operating temperature typically causes a 0.45% drop in relative efficiency, a metric known as the temperature coefficient of power. Moreover, every 10°C rise is expected to double the degradation rate of the solar system.
To combat this, the team developed their present cooling device that directs waste air from air conditioning systems toward the back of solar panels.
The system includes an exhaust fan connected to the outlet of a central air conditioning module. Credit: https://patents.google.com/patent/US12341471B2/en
Prof. Ghenai said the invention has real-world applications to enhance current solar energy systems. “An attractive smart-building retrofit is created when owners are able to capture incremental solar revenue, reduce total building energy consumption, and lengthen asset lifetimes.
“This is accomplished by completing the thermal loop, which involves converting waste building exhaust into a free cooling source for photovoltaics (PV). This will help to boost solar yield and reduce building cooling loads.”
The patent has already attracted considerable interest from industry, according to Prof. Ghenai. He noted that several companies in HVAC, building energy management, and solar PV sectors have expressed interest in integrating waste air from HVAC systems to cool solar PV modules.
He emphasized that the invention could significantly boost solar power output to meet building electrical loads, reduce the burden on chillers, and extend the lifespan of solar modules.
The system includes an exhaust fan connected to the outlet of a central air conditioning module.
It has a supporting structure positioned at a predefined distance in front of the fan to hold one or more solar panels, as well as panels tilted at specific angles and azimuths to maximize exposure of their rear surfaces to the cooling airflow.
The fan is calibrated to deliver air at a predefined temperature. Credit: https://patents.google.com/patent/US12341471B2/en
The fan is calibrated to deliver air at a predefined temperature, optimizing the cooling effect and improving overall system efficiency.
The inventors conclude, “An effective solar panel cooling methodology and maintenance policy are essential to improve power system efficiency and reliability.”
Prof. Ghenai and his team are currently advancing innovative research in clean energy technologies. Their work includes harvesting waste air from HVAC systems to power wind turbines for renewable electricity generation, developing hybrid solar PV/wind turbine systems, creating novel methods for dust removal and solar PV cleaning in arid regions, and designing solutions to enhance green hydrogen production.
patents.google.com/patent/US12341471B2/en
Emerging energy and water harvesting technologiesThermal energy management materials
Provided by University of Sharjah
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A patented cooling system uses waste air from HVAC exhaust to lower the operating temperature of solar PV panels, addressing thermal losses that can reduce efficiency by up to 20% at high temperatures. This approach can recover up to 10% more power, extend panel lifespan, and reduce maintenance, particularly in hot, arid climates, by optimizing thermal management and repurposing waste energy.
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New cooling system patent promises significant boost in solar panel efficiency
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Long-term seasonal and interannual performance of a residential photovoltaic system in a temperate continental climate frontiersin.org
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Solar and wind accounted for nearly 90% of all new utility-scale generating capacity added to the US grid through December 2025, according to the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC).
Image: Ruoyu Li/Unsplash
From pv magazine USA
The US solar industry installed 26,556 MW of new utility-scale capacity over the course of 2025, representing the vast majority of the 36,551 MW in total new builds for the year, said data from the FERC.
While the annual total dipped slightly compared to the 33.8 GW installed in 2024, solar remains the primary driver of grid expansion, now making up 12.16% of the total available installed generating capacity in the United States.
In the final month of the year, developers brought 1,193 MW of new capacity online, headlined by 17 solar units totaling 993 MW and a single 200 MW wind project. Notable utility-scale completions for the month include:
Regional contributions included Origis Energy’s 74.9 MW Whistling Duck Solar Project in Florida and Genesee Solar Energy LLC’s 40.8 MW project in Michigan, which will supply power to Consumers Energy Co. under a long-term contract.
As of year-end 2025, the US total available installed generating capacity stands at 1,353.04 GW. Natural gas maintains the largest share of the mix, though its dominance continues to be challenged by the rapid scaling of solar and wind.
The three-year outlook suggests a massive acceleration in the energy transition. “High probability” additions through December 2028 include 86.5 GW of solar and 19.9 GW of wind. In contrast, the fossil fuel sector is bracing for significant contractions; the industry expects over 40.8 GW of coal capacity to retire by 2028, compared to zero planned “high probability” coal additions.
If all proposed additions in the current pipeline reach completion, solar could add as much as 240 GW to the US grid by the end of 2028, further cementing its position as the leading source of new American power generation.
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Chinese companies are racing to mass produce thin, lightweight perovskite solar cells, with both startups and established players firing up large production lines.
In all, more than 100 companies, including lithium battery giant Contemporary Amperex Technology (CATL) and electric vehicle maker BYD, are developing perovskite cells, prompting their Japanese counterparts to formulate strategies to avoid head-on competition.
China’s UtmoLight started what was believed to be the world’s first gigawatt-scale perovskite solar cell production facility in February 2025 in Jiangsu. The startup is aiming to make 1.8 million of those cells annually, with a conversion efficiency of 17.44%.
Many Chinese makers use glass substrates, which are believed to be easier to manufacture than the thin film types being developed by Japan’s Sekisui Chemical. China is seeing a succession of new plants coming online that could rival Sekisui Chemical’s gigawatt-scale facility planned for 2030.
In 2022, Hangzhou Microquanta Semiconductor Technology started up a production line with an annual capacity of 100 megawatts in Zhejiang.
“We have completed construction of production lines with a gigawatt-level annual capacity, and are preparing to begin manufacturing,” co-founder and CEO Yao Jizhong told a local newspaper in March 2025. The company then announced in November the same year that it had developed the largest commercial perovskite panels in the world, with conversion efficiency of 18.6%.
In June last year, Kunshan GCL Optoelectronic Materials brought a RMB 5 billion (USD 724.7 million) plant online in Jiangsu. The operator is aiming to double that plant’s annual capacity to two GW.
“More than 100 companies in China are developing perovskite solar cells, with over 100,000 researchers working in the field,” said Izumi Kaizuka, principal analyst at Japanese consulting firm RTS.
As the power conversion efficiency of silicon solar cells approaches its theoretical limit, perovskite solar cells offer countless combinations of materials that create significant room for improvement. They can be produced on flexible substrates, allowing for installation on walls, for example.
The field is relatively easy to enter, as it requires no large-scale research facilities. Many researchers in China have returned after studying in Europe, the US, and Japan to add to the country’s overall expertise.
“The open nature of development is a factor in its strength,” said senior analyst Risa Kurihara at RTS.
Perovskite cell developers in China are more diverse than those in Japan, which tend to be mainly chemical or electronics manufacturers. UtmoLight, for example, was spun off in 2020 from car battery maker Svolt Energy Technology, which is affiliated with automaker Great Wall Motor.
Kunshan GCL Optoelectronic has its roots in a startup founded by two researchers who met as students at prestigious Tsinghua University.
Several major silicon solar cell manufacturers are working on developing products that use combinations of perovskite and silicon to make tandem cells.
Big names such as CATL, BYD, and display panel maker BOE Technology have also applied for patents and have shown off products at trade shows, according to local media reports. As oversupply and excessive competition remain issues in fields such as EVs and silicon solar cells, companies are investing in perovskite solar with expectations of growth.
Around 2010, Japanese manufacturers including Sharp, Kyocera, and Panasonic Holdings dominated silicon solar cells globally, but Chinese companies have drained their market shares with the overwhelming scale of mass production.
Many Japan companies are now strategizing to avoid repeating the same mistake with perovskite solar. Panasonic, for example, is betting on small-lot development tailored to customer needs to avoid competing on scale and cost.
This article first appeared on Nikkei Asia. It has been republished here as part of 36Kr’s ongoing partnership with Nikkei.
Note: RMB figures are converted to USD at rates of RMB 6.90 = USD 1 based on estimates as of March 25, 2026, unless otherwise stated. USD conversions are presented for ease of reference and may not fully match prevailing exchange rates.
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The practice of using the same land for both solar power and farming is being rolled out successfully around the world. So why’s the UK lagging behind, asks Nick Easen?
1st April 2026 • • 0 Comments
There are many areas of society, business and economics where the UK is a bit of a laggard and agrivoltaics is one of them. While Germany, France and Italy are ploughing ahead, growing crops alongside or beneath solar panels, the UK is not even out of the starting blocks. There are no big investments, or large-scale trials, and only a handful of research projects.
This seems strange given that many people have voiced concerns about solar farms gobbling up land for food production. Last year the Campaign to Protect Rural England touted the headline “Two-thirds of mega solar farms built on productive farmland,” saying in a report that an area the size of Greater London would need to be covered in panels to meet our solar energy targets.
However, there is an obvious solution for the ‘fuel versus land use crisis’ and that involves marrying the two. By putting solar panels on stilts or using vertical solar panels with spaces in between, you can farm effectively and also produce homegrown renewable energy. This can also increase land use efficiency up to 186 per cent.
“We’ve shown this in Norway – very little loss of yield when demonstrating agrivoltaics. The biomass of the grass grown in between solar panels was not significantly different. This is a really surprising result,” explains Dr Richard Randle-Boggis from SINTEF, a Norwegian research institute, who has also worked on agrivoltaics at the University of Sheffield.
Agrivoltaics deals with two of the UK’s biggest dilemmas right now – how to wean the country off volatile oil and gas, and become more food secure. It wasn’t long ago that President Emmanuel Macron heralded agrivoltaics as a key pillar of France’s new energy strategy.
“I started looking at this nine years ago and we still haven’t got much further with agrivoltaic research in the UK. But when you look to Europe, and in Asia and North America, there’s a lot of work being done. The research field has not only skyrocketed but there are now large megawatt scale, commercial systems in operation,” states Randle-Boggis.
He adds: “I’m shocked and disappointed that it’s not getting more attention in the UK. This is starting to change, but only a little.”
A study last year found that combining solar panels with farming can meet he UK’s solar energy targets without sacrificing agricultural land. The coverage potential for such technology is so high that it could meet our electricity demand more than four times over, according to the University of Sheffield.
The research also found that areas of Cambridgeshire, Essex, Lincolnshire, and the broader East and South East of England would be good for agrivoltaics due to the availability of flat land, the extent of existing farmland, grid connectivity and the prevalence of sunny days.
“There are no geographical, climatic or technological reasons why the UK should not start developing its own brand of agrivoltaics – there is potential for small-scale and commercial applications within the UK,” stated Dr Aritra Ghosh from the University of Exeter in a recent research paper.
It is already common practice for solar farms to be erected on land that is also used for livestock farming. For instance Lightsource BP – owned by the global energy giant BP – already has over 55 solar PV parks with sheep grazing.
The fact is, solar panels do create some partial shading of crops. This can limit yields of certain crops by a small amount. But, interestingly, studies have also shown that yields can increase when certain crops are partially shaded with solar panels – Enel Green Power, which manages 1400 renewable energy plants across five continents, has found that “the area beneath solar panels creates a shaded microclimate, reducing evaporation from soil and plant transpiration. This approach allows for 20% to 30% savings in irrigation water.” This is of particular benefit in times of drought: think of the East of England in the height of summer when light levels are high, but rainfall is poor. It’s about assessing both crop and climate to ensure yields remain high.
Solar panels are also most efficient if they are kept cool. As they photosynthesise, crops produce water which evaporates, cooling the air above. Studies in the U.S. have found that elevated panels generate ten per cent more electricity than the same panel mounted on the ground.
So why is the UK so far behind? Dr Randle-Boggis thinks it is due to a lack of knowledge and the fact that we don’t know how these agrivoltaic systems will perform in the UK. This has created a chicken and egg situation when it comes to investment. If we don’t have the right knowledge then there are risks involved and vice versa.
“We need to have research, pilot systems and sandboxes that show that agrivoltaics really works. By their very nature, they need large amount of capital investment. We need somebody who’s willing to install an agrivoltaic solar park, even if it’s at a relatively small scale, and to test something that’s currently unknown in the British climate and in the context of UK agricultural,” he explains.
However, if the farmer is boosting their income from solar power generation then the net gain should be positive. The higher mountings for the solar panels may cost 50 per cent more, but there is not a wholescale loss of farming land, as there is with conventional solar parks. In terms of economy, farms have seen a 30 per cent boost in economic value when deploying agrivoltaics.
“The challenge is that it requires holistic thinking from two very different stakeholder groups – the energy company and the farmer. Both may have to make concessions. The capital expenditure is slightly greater for the electricity generator and the farmer may make a little less from food production. This creates a greater level of complexity,” details Randle-Boggis
“Right now, there aren’t really any incentives from the UK government to support the multifunctional use of land. It means there’s a lot of uncertainty for both developers and farmers from a policy perspective, from an economic perspective, and from a system performance perspective. Other countries are now moving ahead and they are starting to implement policies to regulate how agrivoltaics will work.”
This is because agrivoltaics has the potential for greenwashing, or in some cases “sheepwashing,” where support is given by local authorities for a project but minimal farming goes on underneath the solar panels, bar a few grazing animals, in order to get the subsidies, approvals or community buy-in.
What the UK is not benefiting from is advancements in agrivoltaics either. Research is now investigating the use of semi-transparent or wavelength-selective solar panels, which can filter sunlight to allow specific wavelengths through, that are appropriate for crops growing below.
There are also vertical bi-facial solar panels in operation now, these face east-west, and provide less shade to crops and make it easier to farm on the strips in between. They also generate electricity in the morning and afternoon, when the grid is in need of more electricity.
There are also tracking systems that shift the angle of solar panels. These can maximise electricity generation during the heat of the midday sun, but also shade crops from stressful sun glare.
“There are so few feasibility studies done in the UK with agri-voltaics. It’s ridiculous. It’s been around for years. There’s also potential to generate solar power in areas of the country where there is less wind. We need to move forward. Farmers need to engage and enjoy the spoils of the renewable revolution,” concludes Stuart Oates, a Cornish farmer and founder of Fossil Free Farm.
Find out what three main routes to sustainable farming actually mean and how to support them.
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Front. Energy Res., 15 January 2026
Sec. Solar Energy
Volume 13 – 2025 | https://doi.org/10.3389/fenrg.2025.1703511
Frontiers in Energy Research
Edited by
Praveen Kumar Balachandran
Reviewed by
Suganthi Ramasamy
Dr. Vankadara Sampath Kumar
Outline
Abstract
Introduction
System configuration
Control approach
Result and discussion
Conclusion
Data availability statement
Author contributions
Funding
Conflict of interest
Generative AI statement
Correction note
Publisher’s note
References
FIGURE 1
FIGURE 2
FIGURE 3
FIGURE 4
FIGURE 5
FIGURE 6
FIGURE 7
FIGURE 8
FIGURE 9
FIGURE 10
FIGURE 11
FIGURE 12
TABLE 1
Theoretical calculations for boost converter design.
TABLE 2
PV array parameters.
Front. Energy Res., 15 January 2026
Sec. Solar Energy
Volume 13 – 2025 | https://doi.org/10.3389/fenrg.2025.1703511
Manish Kumar 1
Kumar Shubham 1
Kshitij Tiwari 1
Asha Anu Kurian 1
Kamaraj Jamuna 1
Odiyur Vathanam Gnana Swathika 2*
1. School of Electrical Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology, Chennai, India
2. Centre for Smart Grid Technologies, Vellore Institute of Technology, Chennai, India
Article metrics
Introduction:
Reliable electricity in remote regions requires standalone photovoltaic (SAPV) systems, which operate without grid support. However, solar energy fluctuation due to irradiance and temperature significantly affects power generation. Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) techniques are essential to ensure that PV panels operate at peak power under changing environmental conditions. This work integrates a Perturb & Observe (P&O) MPPT algorithm with a Proportional-Integral (PI) controller to enhance power extraction and voltage regulation. Real-time validation is performed using OPAL-RT Hardware-in-the-Loop (HIL) testing to assess performance under dynamic scenarios.
Methods:
A boost converter is designed for an 18 V PV module, boosting the output to around 60 V. The PV system model is developed in MATLAB/Simulink and linked to OPAL-RT RT-LAB for real-time execution. The MPPT controller uses voltage and current measurements to adjust duty cycle, while a PI controller stabilizes voltage near the peak power point. Simulations and HIL testing are carried out under variable irradiance.
Results and Discussion:
Simulation and HIL results confirm voltage boosting with improved stability compared to standalone P&O control. Minor oscillations around MPP are reduced through PI tuning. Efficiency exceeds 95%, demonstrating reliable tracking under varying irradiance. The real-time platform validates design scalability for off-grid deployment.
The necessity of solar energy harvesting in off-grid areas stems from the need for sustainable, cost-effective, and reliable electricity in regions without infrastructure. Solar power provides a clean energy source that improves living standards, supports businesses, and enables essential services like healthcare and education in rural communities. SAP) system is an independent solar power setup that operates without grid connection. It includes solar panels, batteries for storage, a charge controller, and an inverter to convert DC to AC power. SAPV systems harness solar energy to supply electricity in remote areas where grid access is unavailable or unreliable. Solar energy systems are heavily influenced by factors like irradiance, temperature, and partial shading. To meet load demands effectively, PV systems must consistently operate at maximum power, which is achieved through various maximum power point tracking (MPPT) techniques. Each method involves a trade-off between accuracy and stability near the maximum power point. Additionally, the performance is affected by the DC-DC converter and varying DC load conditions. Hence, designing an efficient system that maintains high performance under dynamic environmental and load variations is essential for reliable solar energy utilization (Sharma, 2023).
OPAL-RT technology plays a vital role in advancing research into microgrid, distributed generation, renewable energy and power systems. Research areas include optimizing fuel cell microgrid, active power compensation filters, MPPT in photovoltaic systems, DC microgrid stability, and protection mechanisms such as anti-islanding techniques. For real-time control validation, OPAL-RT is employed in simulations of custom power devices like Static VAR Compensators (SVCs) and HVDC transmission systems. It also integrates artificial intelligence to enhance control strategies in electric drives and induction motors. Its real-time capabilities provide deeper insights into system dynamics, making it an essential tool for advancing sustainable energy solutions (Mohanty et al., 2018). Software in loop (SIL) is a simulation method where the control system code is tested within a virtual simulation environment. The code runs on a computer or simulator, which models the system dynamics, without involving any actual hardware. HIL (Hardware in loop) is a technique where real hardware components are integrated into a simulation loop. The actual hardware, such as controllers or sensors, interacts with a real-time simulation of the system that it would control in real life. This allows engineers to test how the hardware performs in a safe, controlled environment before using it in the real world.
Photovoltaic (PV) system serves as a highly used electrical generator, spurred by the increasing need for clean energy and its ease of deployment. The rising use of PV arrays is largely attributed to the significant potential of renewable energy. However, these systems encounter obstacles in terms of conversion efficiency and variable power output, mainly caused by changes in irradiation and temperature (Subrata et al., 2019).
Throughout the day, the intensity of solar radiation varies as a result of the shifting azimuth angle of the sun. On overcast days, solar energy received is considerably less than on clear, sunny days. Furthermore, the power output of a PV panel is influenced by its resistive load, which can reduce electricity generation even under consistent irradiance and temperature conditions. For each specific load, a maximum power point (MPP) can be identified; however, this point continuously shifts due to changing environmental factors such as sunlight and temperature. As a result, accurately locating and maintaining operation at the MPP presents a significant challenge (Mann et al., 2023).
MPPT is an essential component in PV systems as they enhance the overall efficiency by maximizing the power output. MPPT algorithms are required because PV arrays exhibit a non-linear voltage-current relationship, with a specific point where power generation is at its peak. The output power from solar panels fluctuates due to factors like solar irradiance and temperature. To optimize energy extraction, it is crucial to operate the PV system at the MPP. Common algorithms, such as perturb and observe (P&O) and incremental conductance (INC), control the DC-DC boost converter to continuously track and maintain operation at the MPPT (Gomathy et al., 2012; Suryavanshi et al., 2012). PSO shows greater capability in tracking for true maximum power point under partial shaded conditions with average output efficiency up to 99.92% compared to P&O which is only 76.76% (Tiong et al., 2019; Zdiri et al., 2021).
Different techniques are used to optimize the output of this PV system few already tried earlier with significant result as a boost converter connected to the PV system. To the output voltage of the PV system, control strategies are applied based on the boost converter’s characteristics. A combination of Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) and a Proportional-Integral (PI) controller is employed to maximize power extraction from the PV system. The PI controller ensures that maximum power is consistently tracked from the PV panel, even under varying atmospheric conditions (Nagarajan et al., 2017).
Section 2 discusses about System Configuration and Section 3 elaborates about the control strategy deployed in the proposed system. Section 4 elaborates the results and discussion of the system under consideration.
Figure 1 shows the overall block diagram of the proposed system. PV array captures solar energy and converts it into direct current (DC) electricity. Under standard conditions, it produces an output voltage of approximately 18 V, with a maximum power generation of around 35 W. Variations in solar irradiance and environmental factors may affect these values, requiring power regulation for stable operation. As for the boost converter the basic circuit is designed based on the relevant calculation and constraints. The Boost converter is designed for typical 80 W panels and to boost it approximately to 60 V under steady dc voltage supply conditions. The next phase is to stabilise the output and track down the maximum power and adjust the duty cycle accordingly. Relevant blocks like comparator, reference signal and gain are added to do the same. The MPPT controller implementing the P&O algorithm comprises components such as delay units, summation operators, multiplication blocks, gain elements, switching logic and saturation limit. Proportional integral (PI) controller stabilizes the processed signals from these algorithmic blocks. This control architecture operates by iterating through successive cycles of photovoltaic array output measurements, systematically comparing current-cycle parameters (voltage, current, and power) against those from the preceding cycle. These comparative evaluations trigger whenever measurable parameter variations occur in the PV output characteristics.
FIGURE 1
Block diagram for overall work.
Compared with conventional MPPT techniques, the intelligent MPPT like FLC, ANN and ANFIS techniques show high tracking efficiency of MPP and less steady-state oscillation in rapidly changing weather conditions without prior knowledge of the mathematical model. However, these methods suffer from implementation complexity, long response times, big data processing, and high realization cost (Boubaker, 2023).
Studies show that combining PI control with P&O algorithms offers a highly effective strategy for enhancing voltage stability in PV systems. Traditional direct duty ratio control methods, while commonly used for MPPT, often suffer from drawbacks such as excessive stress on power electronic components and increased power losses due to abrupt changes in duty cycles. To address these challenges, researchers explore the integration of a PI controller with the P&O algorithm, leveraging the PI controller’s ability to regulate the panel voltage more smoothly and maintain system stability (Habibah et al., 2024).
By incorporating a PI controller into the control loop, the system mitigates oscillations around the MPP and reduce the sudden fluctuations that typically arise in conventional P&O implementations. This combined PI-P&O strategy ensures a more refined control mechanism, leading to improved steady-state performance, reduced power losses and enhanced overall system efficiency. Additionally, the closed-loop nature of this approach contributes to a more stable response under varying environmental conditions, such as fluctuations in solar irradiance and temperature. As a result, this hybrid control method is widely recognized for its ability to optimize power extraction while minimizing adverse effects on the power conversion process in PV systems (Banerjee, 2014; Lotfy and Hussein, 2025).
The MPPT algorithm is an effective method for maximizing the performance of solar panels, particularly in systems that do not track the sun’s position. These techniques enhance the efficiency of PV systems by ensuring maximum power output from the PV array. Various MPPT methods are developed for PV applications, with the P&O technique being among the most commonly implemented. In this method, the output voltage (Vout) and current (Iout) of the converter are monitored using voltage and current sensors, respectively (Kabalci et al., 2015; Nataraj et al., 2024).
The system dynamically adjusts the duty cycle value through pulse-width modulation to maintain operation at the photovoltaic array’s maximum power point. Three comparator switches that form decision-making nodes evaluates whether the voltage (ΔV) and power (ΔP) differentials show positive or negative trends. A gain block configured with a factor of −1 feeds into subsequent circuitry to invert polarity when required by the control logic. The architecture implements a feedforward loop incorporating a PI controller combined with a saturation block that constrains output signals between operational thresholds of 16.34 and 18.92 units to bring the voltage in stability limits so that Vmax = 1.1p.u and Vmin = 0.95p.u. A delay component completes this regulatory circuit by introducing temporal sampling intervals that enable error signal analysis and subsequent duty cycle optimizations.
With an input voltage of 17.7 V, output voltage of 60 V, switching frequency of 10 kHz and power of 80 W, the corresponding input and output currents are 4.51 A and 1.33 A respectively. To ensure stable and efficient operation, the inductor current ripple is limited to 1% of input current, minimizing losses and component stress. Likewise, the output voltage ripple is set to 1% of the output voltage, maintaining voltage stability for the load. Based on these values, the required inductance (27.73 mH) and capacitance value greater than (156 µF) are calculated to support smooth energy transfer and ripple reduction at the output. Selection of capacitor for simulation is done to reduce the ripple voltage A duty ratio of 0.705 is determined for proper voltage boosting.
Table 1 shows the theoretical calculation of the boost converter.
TABLE 1
Theoretical calculations for boost converter design.
Figure 2 shows the Simulink model of the overall circuit which is further implemented in OPAL-RT RT-LAB software. As in Figure 3, the first block namely PV Array takes the input as irradiance and it directly feeds to the boost converter specially designed for the PV specifications. Also, PV array block feeds its output to next set of subsystems whose ultimate purpose is to serve as a controller unit.
FIGURE 2
Simulink Model of Circuit with controller.
FIGURE 3
Control method.
The final output from this controller is fed in as a pulse to the boost converter. For now, a resistive load is considered for observing the output of the boost converter and the characteristic of the same is observed. The PV array specifications are shown in Table 2. The irradiance is set at 1000 W/m2 and temperature at 25 °C for the initial testing of controller and converter. The model works well for those values.
TABLE 2
PV array parameters.
As depicted in Table 2, a single-string, single-module PV array is considered with design parameters: open-circuit voltage (Voc) of 20.23 V, maximum power voltage (Vmp) of 17.2 V, short-circuit current (Isc) of 2.18 A, and maximum power current (Imp) of 2.04 A. The module consists of 30 cells, with irradiance and temperature set to 1000 W/m2 and 25 °C, respectively. The boost converter is designed with an inductance of 27.53 mH and a capacitance of 156 µF for a 45 Ω load.
The switching block continuously monitors voltage levels, adjusting power iteration through a gain block with a step size of −1 to maintain peak power for direction of gradient updates. A PI controller, regulated via MATLAB’s auto-tuned Kp and Ki values, ensures power stability within predefined limits. Figures 4a,b depicts the basic architectures of centralized and decentralized controlling while hybrid architecture is nothing but a mixture of other two.
For real-time validation, the circuit is implemented in OPAL-RT’s RT-LAB with minor parameter modifications. The simulation demonstrated that an 17 V input is successfully boosted to 38.46 V. In RT-LAB, the Master unit manages real-time computations, synchronizing tasks and handling inter-process communication. The Console serves as the user interface, allowing users to control simulations, adjust parameters and analyze real-time results. When integrating MATLAB/Simulink models into RT-LAB, the Master executes real-time tasks while the Console facilitates deployment and interaction (Nath et al., 2024).
FIGURE 4
(a) PV Voltage waveform. (b) Boost converter input Voltage and (c) Power input of the boost converter.
As shown in Figure 3, the control approach revolves around ultimately varying the duty cycle of the converter according to irradiance of the area. The aim of the proposed work is to increase the duty cycle of the converter when the irradiance becomes low i.e. in a weather which is slightly cloudy whereas the duty cycle is to be decreased when the irradiance passes a certain threshold or upper value. The circuit aims to hold on to MPP within that specific region of power curve by adjusting the duty ratio. Figures 4, 5 shows the input and output of PV array and boost converter respectively. The PV array gives a voltage of around 17 V with current and power being 3.5 A and 64 W respectively. After being through the boost converter and controller the outputs received were 1.2 A, ∼55 V, ∼64 W respectively. Thus, a significant amplification in voltage is observed. Figure 4a represents the a) PV Voltage waveform b) Boost Converter input Voltage and c) Power input of the boost converter illustrates the dynamic response of a PV–Boost Converter system over a simulation duration of 10 s. The voltage exhibits a very small settling transient at the start and quickly stabilizes near its rated operating voltage. This indicates that the voltage regulation or MPPT control is effectively holding the panel at its optimal operating point.
FIGURE 5
Master’s window in OPAL RT for the Simulink model.
For practical considerations and real-world constraints, the circuit is implemented in OPAL RT. The result obtained matches with the simulation results obtained earlier. Figure 6 denotes the output voltage obtained in software in loop simulation which illustrates that voltage ripple is 0.01 and voltage is 38.04 V. The master and console are as shown in Figures 5, 7 respectively. Figure 11 shows the output waveform that depicts how the system adjusts the environment when tested HIL mode. The magnitude of noise was higher when the execution was done in HIL setup but the change in parameters were noticed in real time.
FIGURE 6
Output waveform in OPAL RT 4610 in DSO by Software in loop simulation in hardware synchronized mode.
FIGURE 7
Console’s window in OPAL RT for the Simulink model.
The driver circuit is observed as in Figure 8. The tesing of driver circuit is as shown in Figure 9 and the output waveform is as shown in Figure 10. In HIL, the driver circuit, boost converter and controller are all interfaced to OPAL RT as shown in Figure 11. The testing of Driver circuit for pulse output was done separately by interfacing it through OPAL RT to check the working of boost converter. The setup prototype can be tested through any RPS. The designed boost converter was designed to operate around 17 V which was boosted to 24 V which was measured with multimeter. The OPAL RT crucial capability of HIL testing allows integration of software and hardware by parts thus the controller can be as it is as in Simulink block.
FIGURE 8
Gate driver circuit.
FIGURE 9
Testing of driver circuit.
FIGURE 10
Output of driver circuit.
FIGURE 11
Overall setup required for Hardware implementation.
The voltage trajectory in Figure 12 is partitioned into five operating zones to illustrate the dynamic influence of irradiance variations on load performance in software in loop simulation. In Zone 1 (0–3.5 s), the irradiance exhibits a gradual increment, causing a corresponding rise in the load terminal voltage as the operating point moves toward the maximum power region. Upon transition to Zone 2 (3.5–5.9 s), a moderate decrease in irradiance is introduced, leading to an observable reduction in voltage. The voltage stabilizes after settling to a new operating point, indicating the system’s steady-state adaptation under reduced insolation. In Zone 3 (5.9–6.5 s), the irradiance is further curtailed, mimicking a heavier shading condition. As expected, the PV voltage drops more noticeably before reaching another equilibrium point. Zone 4 (6.5–7.7 s) represents a period of nearly constant low irradiance, during which the voltage maintains a flat voltage profile, confirming stable low-irradiance operation without additional disturbances. Finally, in Zone 5 (7.7–9 s), the irradiance level is restored to a high value, and the PV voltage promptly increases to its elevated operating region, demonstrating rapid system recovery following irradiance enhancement. Overall, the distinct voltage plateaus and transitions across the five zones confirm the strong irradiance–voltage dependency of PV systems. Higher irradiance conditions consistently yield higher terminal voltages, whereas shading or irradiance reduction produces proportionate voltage drops. The presented waveform further highlights the capability of the PV system—and the associated control mechanism—to track and respond reliably to dynamically changing environmental conditions. Settling time in the voltage response for zone 1 0.12 s in zone 1. Performance metrics from simulation results reveals the system is capable of PV tracking efficiency of 99.8% and voltage ripple of 1% after proper selection of output capacitance of 1000 uF. Overall efficiency of the converter is 94.71%. The mean voltage in steady-state matches the reference value, Steady state error is neglible.
FIGURE 12
Output voltage waveform for varying irradiance in different zones with irradiance.
The proposed system is tested under varying irradiance conditions to evaluate the effectiveness of the P&O, MPPT algorithm combined with a PI controller in maintaining a stable output voltage. The simulation was conducted using Simulink and OPAL-RT real-time simulation tools, ensuring high-fidelity results that closely mimic real-world scenarios. The MPPT structure is built using fundamental blocks such as comparators, adders, delay blocks and logic gates, allowing a real-time graphical representation of the power-tracking process. Under fluctuating solar irradiance, the MPPT algorithm efficiently tracks the maximum power point (MPP), adjusting the duty cycle of the DC-DC converter accordingly. However, minor oscillations around the MPP are observed due to the inherent nature of the P&O technique. These oscillations are minimized by fine-tuning the step size of the algorithm.
The PI controller plays a crucial role in stabilizing the voltage output despite variations in solar input. By dynamically adjusting the control effort based on the error signal, the PI regulator effectively compensated for sudden changes in irradiance. The transient response was analysed, showing that the voltage deviation was minimal and the system quickly returned to the desired set point, confirming the controller’s robustness.
Comparing the system’s performance with and without the PI controller demonstrated a significant reduction in voltage fluctuations. The steady-state error was reduced, and the system exhibited improved dynamic response. Additionally, efficiency calculations revealed that the MPPT controller achieved an efficiency of nearer to 95% under most test conditions, reinforcing the suitability of the proposed approach.
Overall, the results validate that the combined MPPT P&O and PI control strategy provides a reliable solution for maintaining stable PV output voltage, ensuring optimal energy harvesting even under inconsistent solar conditions. Input transients exist in the system. Future improvements could involve optimizing the PI tuning parameters using adaptive or intelligent control techniques to further enhance stability and response time.
This study demonstrates the effectiveness of integrating the MPPT Perturb and Observe (P&O) algorithm with a PI controller to maintain a stable voltage output for photovoltaic (PV) systems under varying irradiance conditions. By implementing the MPPT algorithm using MATLAB Simulink blocks, the approach becomes more intuitive, modular, and adaptable for further refinements. The PI controller successfully minimizes voltage fluctuations, ensuring efficient power delivery and improved transient response.
One of the significant advantages of this technique is its ease of implementation and scalability, making it a practical solution for off-grid solar applications. With minimal computational requirements, this method can be deployed in remote areas where grid connectivity is unavailable, ensuring a reliable power supply for rural communities, agricultural setups, and standalone renewable energy systems.
Further improvements in the controller design can enhance the system’s dynamic response, increasing bandwidth and reducing the impact of intermittency in irradiance. By optimizing PI tuning parameters or implementing adaptive control strategies, the system can respond more efficiently to rapid fluctuations in solar input, further stabilizing power output.
For future work, incorporating fuzzy logic or artificial intelligence (AI)-based MPPT algorithms can further improve tracking efficiency and reduce oscillations around the MPP. Additionally, implementing a hybrid energy storage system, such as battery integration with super capacitors, can enhance power stability and provide backup during periods of low solar availability. Real-time hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) testing using platforms like OPAL-RT could also refine the control strategy before practical deployment.
The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.
MK: Writing – original draft. KS: Writing – original draft. KT: Writing – original draft. AAK: Writing – review and editing. KJ: Writing – review and editing. OG: Writing – review and editing.
The authors declare that financial support was received for the research and/or publication of this article. The authors declare that financial support was received from Vellore Institute of Technology Chennai for the research and publication of this article.
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
The authors declare that no Generative AI was used in the creation of this manuscript.
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This article has been corrected with minor changes. These changes do not impact the scientific content of the article.
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.
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Keywords
HIL (hardware-in-the-loop), OPAL-RT, MPPT (maximum power point tracking), P&O (perturb and observe), RPS (regulated power supply), SAPV (stand-alone photovoltaic)
Citation
Kumar M, Shubham K, Tiwari K, Kurian AA, Jamuna K and Gnana Swathika OV (2026) Optimal power extraction and voltage regulation in standalone photovoltaic system. Front. Energy Res. 13:1703511. doi: 10.3389/fenrg.2025.1703511
Received
11 September 2026
Revised
20 November 2025
Accepted
24 November 2025
Published
15 January 2026
Corrected
22 January 2026
Volume
13 – 2025
Edited by
Praveen Kumar Balachandran, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia
Reviewed by
Suganthi Ramasamy, University of Cagliari, Italy
Vankadara Sampath Kumar, National Institute of Technology Mizoram, India
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Copyright
© 2026 Kumar, Shubham, Tiwari, Kurian, Jamuna and Gnana Swathika.
This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
*Correspondence: Odiyur Vathanam Gnana Swathika, gnanaswathika.ov@vit.ac.in
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All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.
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Renewables equipment distributor Segen has launched a solar panel recycling scheme for commercial projects in the UK.
April 1, 2026
Renewables equipment distributor Segen has launched a solar panel recycling scheme for commercial projects in the UK.
The company announced the plan today, to serve decommissioning and repowering needs for commercial solar installations. It said that as the UK’s solar capacity continues to grow, managing modules at the end of their life or when replaced with newer technologies is of increasing importance.
Segen said it will recover silver, silicon and high-purity glass from decommissioned modules, which it said would then be “fed back into the manufacturing chain.” The company did not give further details of this claim, regarding where or how the materials would be returned to the PV manufacturing chain.
The company will charge £6 for each panel below 2m in size and £7 for anything larger. It said it plans to launch a service for residential module recycling in “phase 2” of the scheme, which is currently under development.
SSE puts first solar PV plant online in England
Per media reports, Darren Sykes, head of warehouse & logistics UKI at Segen, said: “With the UK’s commercial solar capacity continuing to expand rapidly, more installations are reaching the end of their operational life, or being repowered as technology advances.
“As the UK’s largest renewables distributor, we consider it our responsibility to deliver a practical, reliable and cost-effective solution. Our recycling scheme will not only ensure panels are handled safely, but will also recover valuable materials for reuse, reduce landfill impact, and strengthen our customers’ ESG credentials.”
Currently, solar modules in the UK are required to be recycled under the Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) regulations, with some firms already offering recycling services. However, according to law firm Osborne Clarke, writing for Solar Power Portal last year, the cost of these recycling obligations can be complex, especially when considering modules which may have become defective and failed to reach their expected usable lifespan.
PV recycling and end-of-life have become a major concern in many developed markets. Our sister site, PV Tech, has covered the matter extensively, most recently in a deep dive on the US module recycling industry (subscription required). Other markets, notably Australia, have also made significant efforts to deal with the growing amount of PV waste as the industry proliferates.
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This photograph features Greg Nielson, a project leader at Sandia National Laboratoies. He holds a solar cell test prototype with a microscale lens array fastened above it. Together, the cell and lens help create a concentrated photovoltaic unit. The t…
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This photograph features Greg Nielson, a project leader at Sandia National Laboratoies. He holds a solar cell test prototype with a microscale lens array fastened above it. Together, the cell and lens help create a concentrated photovoltaic unit. The tiny cells could turn a person into a walking solar battery charger if they were fastened to flexible substrates molded around unusual shapes, such as clothing. The solar particles, fabricated of crystalline silicon, hold the potential for a variety of new applications. They are expected eventually to be less expensive and have greater efficiencies than current photovoltaic collectors that are pieced together with 6-inch- square solar wafers.
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This article originally appeared on Inside Climate News, a nonprofit, nonpartisan news organization that covers climate, energy, and the environment. Sign up for their newsletter.
In Alabama, a yearslong battle over one of the nation’s highest backup fees for residential solar customers may have finally come to an end.
A federal judge ruled last week that Alabama Power can continue charging its small solar customers one of the highest standby charges in the nation, dismissing a lawsuit that argued the fee was illegal under the Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act.
“I am frustrated that Alabama Power solar customers like me have to pay an extra monthly fee in order to reduce our power bills,” Mark Johnston, one of the plaintiffs, said in a news release after the ruling.
Solar advocates in Alabama say the fee, which charges customers with an average residential solar array around $39 per month, significantly stifles the residential solar market in the state by nearly doubling the payback time for a solar installation.
Alabama ranks 51st in residential solar capacity among U.S. states plus Puerto Rico and the District of Columbia, trailing only North Dakota, according to the Solar Energy Industries Association, a solar industry trade group. Per capita, Alabama ranks last.
Alabama Power, which provides power to roughly two-thirds of the state, charges its customers that generate their own electricity a monthly fee of $5.41 per kilowatt of capacity installed.
The average size of a U.S. residential solar array in 2024 was 7.2 kilowatts, according to the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. The fee would add $38.95 each month to the customer’s bill regardless of how much electricity the customer consumes or puts back on the grid.
Alabama Power says the fee is needed to cover costs of maintaining the grid when the solar panels aren’t producing, at night or in cloudy weather.
“Customers who rely on the grid must help pay for the grid,” the company said in an emailed statement. “We are pleased the court agreed with the Public Service Commission’s determination that customers who choose to use Alabama Power for backup service should pay their share of costs to maintain the grid.”
Johnston, an Episcopal priest and retired executive director of Camp McDowell, pays about $32 per month for his 6 kilowatt system.
“This charge discourages additional residential solar systems in the state, a source of clean, renewable power that decreases the use of fossil fuels,” Johnston said. “I want lower electricity bills and a better environment for my children and grandchildren.”
The Southern Environmental Law Center and Ragsdale LLC filed the lawsuit on behalf of customers paying the charge and environmental groups that argued the fee was unlawfully stifling the small-scale solar industry in Alabama.
The Alabama Public Service Commission and Alabama Power filed a motion to dismiss the challenge, granted Wednesday by Judge Annemarie Carney Axon, in the U.S. District Court for the Middle District of Alabama.
The SELC said it is examining the decision and its clients’ legal options.
“This is a disappointing day for Alabama Power customers who want to use solar energy to get relief from some of the highest electricity bills in the nation,” said Christina Tidwell, a senior attorney in SELC’s Alabama office, in a news release. “Not only are we missing out on the bill savings that could be realized through installing rooftop solar, but we’re also missing out on opportunities for job creation and economic development.”
Alabama Power has come under increased scrutiny for its high power bills in recent months.
An Inside Climate News investigation found that Alabama Power had the highest total residential power bills in the country in 2024, and the highest electricity rates in the Southeast.
Environmental advocates have continuously challenged Alabama Power’s capacity reservation charge since it was approved by the Public Service Commission in 2013. The decision was appealed to the Alabama PSC and then to the U.S. Federal Energy Regulatory Commission.
Though FERC did not agree to initiate an enforcement action regarding the fee when it examined the case in 2021, Chairman Richard Glick and Commissioner Allison Clements issued a concurrence to express “concern” that the fee may be in violation of federal utility law, and said the petitioners had “presented a strong case that the Alabama Commission failed to adhere to the regulations set forth in FERC Order No. 69.”
The commissioners were concerned about the way Alabama Power calculated the costs for backup power, saying company had not demonstrated that a solar customer’s profiles were different enough from a nonsolar customer to justify the charge, and the company’s methods had “combined apples and oranges” by relying on actual data and projections to determine the cost difference between solar and nonsolar customers.
The District Court judge ruled otherwise, dismissing the plaintiffs’ suit, saying “the plaintiffs have not presented any evidence from which a factfinder could conclude that Alabama Power violated [PURPA].”
The fee is not the only policy in Alabama that advocates say is holding back solar in the state. Alabama does not offer net metering, where solar customers are credited the same amount for electricity they put on the grid as the electricity they use.
Instead, customers who feed excess energy back onto the grid are only credited the amount of money it would cost Alabama Power to generate the same amount of electricity at one of its power plants, an amount much lower than retail rates.
“Alabama communities are dealing with harmful impacts of our state’s reliance on fossil fuels; meanwhile, Alabama Power and the PSC are chilling clean, bill-reducing solar power,” Jilisa Milton, executive director of the Greater-Birmingham Alliance to Stop Pollution (GASP), said in a news release. “Solar energy offers a unique opportunity for residents of Alabama to take control of their energy costs, reduce their carbon footprints, and contribute to a cleaner environment.”
Alabama Power’s solar fee has long stood out as one of, if not the, highest in the country for small-scale solar users.
Some utility regulators have rejected fees outright, while others have allowed such fees in much lower amounts or have limited fees to systems larger than a certain size.
Georgia Power, also owned by Alabama Power’s parent Southern Company, proposed a fee similar to Alabama’s in 2013. Georgia Power withdrew its proposed fee as opposition mounted in the Georgia Public Service Commission. Alabama’s Public Service Commission approved the fee.
In Virginia, solar customers only pay a standby charge if their array is larger than 15 kilowatts, and that limit is likely to increase soon.
Earlier this month, the Virginia General Assembly passed a bill to increase the threshold for projects that require customers to pay the standby charge to 20 kilowatts, meaning larger projects would be eligible for the standby charge exemptions. The bill is awaiting a signature from Democratic Gov. Abigail Spanberger.
That average standby charge for residential customers amounts to between $25 to $75 a month, but sometimes can be more than $100 a month, according to the Virginia League of Conservation Voters.
“Overall—this model creates a disincentive for Virginians to invest in larger systems that meet their full energy needs, which is how this bill can help,” said Lee Francis, chief program and communications officer of the Virginia League of Conservation Voters.
Alabama Power said its fee is intended to prevent other customers from bearing costs of infrastructure required to serve solar customers when the panels are not producing.
“Alabama Power supports customers who want to install solar or other onsite generation, and we do not charge customers for using rooftop solar,” the company said. “However, if those customers want to stay connected to Alabama Power’s grid to meet their electricity needs when their system cannot, they must pay their share of grid costs so other customers are not unfairly burdened.”
Inside Climate News Virginia reporter Charles Paullin contributed to this report.
Dennis Pillion is a reporter for Inside Climate News based in Alabama.
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LEON COUNTY, Texas (KBTX) — For generations, families across the Brazos Valley have built their lives on rural land, but one Leon County woman says large-scale development is threatening the very thing that makes this place home.
Leon County is home to Rachel Streater, but for her family, land is more than just a plot on a map; it is a legacy.
“I have always seen this as my safe place,” Streater said.
Streater is a fifth-generation landowner in Marquez who said her property is in her blood. Friends travel from across the country to stay at her cottage, drawn to the peace of rural Leon County.
“Friends from all over will come and stay with me because they appreciate how peaceful and quiet and healing the space is,” she said.
However, her land has been under pressure for nearly a decade.
In 2016, the Streater family said they were approached by Cross Texas Transmission to install high-voltage power lines on their property, whether they liked it or not. Those transmission lines stretch from Limestone County through Leon County and into Grimes County.
“I don’t even feel comfortable walking under them the way I used to walk with my dogs back in the day,” Streater said.
Now, a 595-megawatt solar farm is moving in right on her property line. Energy company Repsol broke ground on the Pecan Prairie Solar Facility in October 2025. The 1,300-acre project is expected to be fully operational by 2027.
“All solar panels that used to be farm and ranch land,” Streater said. “I remember playing as a five-year-old little girl with all the kids in the field together, and that’s all going to be gone.”
Just in the past two weeks alone, Streater says she watched an entire forest disappear from her fence line.
“Huge pine trees that have been there for 30 plus years. There was a little peach tree that had grown up in the middle of the forest — and it’s all gone,” she said.
Streater said the destruction doesn’t stop when the sun goes down. Bright construction lights now flood her property at night, keeping her awake.
“Noise pollution by day, light pollution by night,” she voiced.
Streater says when she contacted the Leon County Sheriff’s Office about the light and noise, she was told there are no laws in rural Leon County to enforce. Her only legal recourse, she was told, would be to file a civil lawsuit.
However, the solar farm is just one piece of a bigger picture.
In Jewett, residents are fighting back against a proposed data center campus, called the Kahla Project, that would sit just a quarter mile from resident Daniel McCoslin’s family land.
McCoslin, whose family has farmed and ranched in Leon County for generations, said the community never wanted it.
“It’ll be the size of 30 Costcos, windowless buildings that constantly make noise, and it won’t do anything but destroy the environment and our rural way of life,” McCoslin said.
More than 200 Leon County residents packed a community meeting in Jewett in January 2026 to voice their opposition. County officials say they have invited Belltown Power to attend public meetings, but the company has declined.
These concerns stretch beyond Leon County.
Julie Hernandez lives in Grimes County, where multiple data centers have also been proposed. She says the same transmission line corridor running through Leon County runs through her community, too, and she says everyone should be paying attention.
“This is a statewide problem for anybody who loves the state of Texas, for anybody who wants to pursue life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness,” Hernandez said.
The fight has even reached Washington. Sen. Bernie Sanders and Rep. Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez recently introduced a bill that would pause new data center construction nationwide, citing rising electricity costs, environmental concerns, and the strain on the power grid. A typical AI-focused data center consumes as much electricity as 100,000 households.
For Streater, McCoslin and Hernandez, the fight against large-scale development in rural Texas is just getting started. To Rachel, it is a fight that has brought something unexpected: a community united.
“We’re being called to re-establish our communities and our deep connections,” Streater said. “We’ve lost touch with that over the years, and this is a beautiful opportunity for all of us to share with transparency.”
Residents looking to get involved can connect with Citizens for Responsible Growth in Leon County on Facebook.
Copyright 2026 KBTX. All rights reserved.
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According to pv magazine, Tongwei has formed a strategic cooperation with GS-Solar and Golden Solar to develop a manufacturing facility for hybrid heterojunction back-contact solar cells. The agreement was formalized on March 18, 2026, at Golden Solar’s headquarters in Quanzhou.
The partnership aims to collaborate across the technology value chain, encompassing development, manufacturing, and process optimization. The planned facility is intended for large-scale commercialization, though its specific location and capacity were not revealed.
Under the terms, Tongwei Solar will contribute manufacturing capacity, facilities, supply chain resources, and operational management. GS-Solar will provide the hybrid HBC cell technology, including large-scale integrated equipment and mass-production process solutions. Golden Solar will supply patents along with commissioning and process support.
The companies plan to establish a coordination mechanism to optimize production, lower costs, and improve cell efficiency as they advance toward industrial deployment. The core technology combines several solar cell concepts, integrating elements from heterojunction and TOPCon designs within a back-contact architecture that features a grid-free front side. This hybrid approach seeks to balance high efficiency with reduced production costs and simpler processing.
GS-Solar has reported increasing laboratory conversion efficiencies for this technology in recent years. The collaboration marks an entry for Tongwei, a major global solar cell manufacturer, into the hybrid HBC segment and could hasten the shift from lab development to industrial output. It also broadens Tongwei’s existing technology portfolio.
GS-Solar has engaged in similar partnerships previously, including agreements with other major solar manufacturers to upgrade existing production lines to HBC technology. These moves suggest GS-Solar is establishing itself as a supplier of technology and equipment for commercializing hybrid HBC cells.
This report provides a comprehensive view of the solar cells and light-emitting diodes industry in China, tracking demand, supply, and trade flows across the national value chain. It explains how demand across key channels and end-use segments shapes consumption patterns, while also mapping the role of input availability, production efficiency, and regulatory standards on supply.
Beyond headline metrics, the study benchmarks prices, margins, and trade routes so you can see where value is created and how it moves between domestic suppliers and international partners. The analysis is designed to support strategic planning, market entry, portfolio prioritization, and risk management in the solar cells and light-emitting diodes landscape in China.
The report combines market sizing with trade intelligence and price analytics for China. It covers both historical performance and the forward outlook to 2035, allowing you to compare cycles, structural shifts, and policy impacts.
This report provides a consistent view of market size, trade balance, prices, and per-capita indicators for China. The profile highlights demand structure and trade position, enabling benchmarking against regional and global peers.
The analysis is built on a multi-source framework that combines official statistics, trade records, company disclosures, and expert validation. Data are standardized, reconciled, and cross-checked to ensure consistency across time series.
All data are normalized to a common product definition and mapped to a consistent set of codes. This ensures that comparisons across time are aligned and actionable.
The forecast horizon extends to 2035 and is based on a structured model that links solar cells and light-emitting diodes demand and supply to macroeconomic indicators, trade patterns, and sector-specific drivers. The model captures both cyclical and structural factors and reflects known policy and technology shifts in China.
Each projection is built from national historical patterns and the broader regional context, allowing the report to show where growth is concentrated and where risks are elevated.
Prices are analyzed in detail, including export and import unit values, regional spreads, and changes in trade costs. The report highlights how seasonality, freight rates, exchange rates, and supply disruptions influence pricing and margins.
Key producers, exporters, and distributors are profiled with a focus on their operational scale, geographic footprint, product mix, and market positioning. This helps identify competitive pressure points, partnership opportunities, and routes to differentiation.
This report is designed for manufacturers, distributors, importers, wholesalers, investors, and advisors who need a clear, data-driven picture of solar cells and light-emitting diodes dynamics in China.
The market size aggregates consumption and trade data, presented in both value and volume terms.
The projections combine historical trends with macroeconomic indicators, trade dynamics, and sector-specific drivers.
Yes, it includes export and import unit values, regional spreads, and a pricing outlook to 2035.
The report benchmarks market size, trade balance, prices, and per-capita indicators for China.
Yes, it highlights demand hotspots, trade routes, pricing trends, and competitive context.
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Cornell University researchers demonstrated that tracking solar panels in agrivoltaic systems can protect crops from wind damage while allowing airflow, outperforming traditional single-row tree windbreaks. They also proposed a new lowered-first-row panel design that improves wind protection, achieving up to 86% reduction in shelter-zone wind speeds under extreme conditions.
Image: Cornell University
From pv magazine Global
Researchers from Cornell University in the United States have used computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modeling to evaluate how different agrivoltaic designs protect crops from wind damage, comparing conventional tracking solar panels with a natural tree windbreak.
“Airflow under solar panels is a key consideration for agrivoltaic systems. If conditions are too windy, crops can be damaged; if too calm, crops risk mildew,” corresponding author Max Zhang told pv magazine. “We quantified wind speed below solar panels in various configurations and compared it with traditional agricultural windbreaks. The results help identify strategies to achieve optimal airflow beneath solar panels in agrivoltaic systems.”
The team explained that by adjusting panel tilt in horizontal single-axis tracking (HSAT) systems, agrivoltaic setups can either block damaging winds or allow airflow for aeration, depending on crop needs and weather conditions.
The CFD model uses Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) equations in ANSYS Fluent engineering software to simulate airflow around solar panels. Panels were explicitly modeled, while racking structures and gaps were simplified. The simulation domain was divided into three zones, allowing refined meshing near the panels and coarser grids elsewhere. A grid independence study ensured accuracy without excessive computational cost.
The researchers also modeled a natural tree windbreak as a homogeneous porous medium in ANSYS Fluent, using a momentum sink to capture flow resistance, primarily from inertial effects. Inlet wind speeds ranging from 5–35 m/s were simulated to represent different levels of crop and soil damage, enabling a direct comparison with agrivoltaic windbreaks. The agrivoltaic scenarios included HSAT panels with tilt angles from 0° to 90°, as well as a new lowered-first-row (LFR) design at 60° to improve airflow over downstream panels.
Both windbreak types were simulated with identical boundary conditions to ensure a fair comparison of wind reduction performance. The agrivoltaic system length of 20 rows mirrors typical tree windbreak spacing, providing maximum wind protection while reflecting realistic agricultural design constraints.
“The simulations revealed three wind zones beneath the solar panels,” Zhang said. “First, wind speeds increase under the leading rows of panels. Then, wind slows in the shelter zone, providing protection. Finally, downwind, wind speeds gradually recover to initial levels. In very windy conditions, solar panels reduced wind speeds by up to 70% in the shelter zone, compared with virtually no protection from a single row of trees, which represents a conventional windbreak.”
“Our study highlights the benefits of tracking solar panels, which follow the sun throughout the day,” Zhang added. “Compared with a stationary windbreak, tracking panels can be oriented to provide protection in windy conditions while allowing airflow during calm periods. The new lowered-first-row design offers an aerodynamic solution to the acceleration zone found in other agrivoltaic scenarios, achieving up to 86% protection in the shelter zone under extreme wind conditions.”
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Researchers in Finland found that dishwashing liquid reduces solar module transmittance and performance, leaving residues even after rinsing. They recommend avoiding its use for cleaning solar panels.
Image: University of Turku
Researchers at the University of Turku in Finland have investigated whether household cleaning products can be used to clean solar panels, finding that most – including glass cleaner and isopropanol – are suitable and do not affect module glass light transmittance.
Dishwashing liquid was the exception, as it was found to alter the optical properties of anti-reflective (AR)-coated solar panel glass.
The scientists noted that, although dishwashing liquid is unlikely to cause permanent damage, the transmittance of glass cleaned with it did not return to pre-cleaning levels, even after rinsing.
“Even though glass washed with dishwashing liquid appears clean, its light-transmitting capacity is noticeably diminished. A visually clean result doesn’t necessarily ensure peak performance,” researcher Julianna Varjopuro told pv magazine.
“It’s possible that the dishwashing detergent simply left stains on the glass rather than harming the AR coating. Regardless, it is recommended to avoid using it when cleaning solar panels,” added Professor Kati Miettunen.
The experiments were conducted using glass fragments taken from an unused silicon solar panel. Large glass pieces were immersed for 20 hours in various cleaning solutions, including ethanol, acetone, isopropanol, solar panel detergent, glass cleaner, and dishwashing detergent.
Image: University of Turku, Mikael Nyberg
A similar test was performed after growing algae on the glass for three days using a nutrient-sugar-moss mixture. Transmittance of cleaned glass was measured using a UV-vis spectrophotometer across 190–1100 nm.
Cleaning tests on unsoiled solar panel glass showed that all chemicals improved transmittance except for dishwashing detergent, which reduced the peak by about 1%. Solar panel detergent products, meanwhile, were found to perform only slightly better than generic cleaners. In soiled samples, cleaning restored transmittance and removed differences caused by algae, except when dishwashing detergent was used, which left the peak nearly 4% lower.
Atomic force microscopic (AFM) analysis confirmed the antireflective coating remained intact after cleaning, with scratches
attributed to earlier handling.
“Cleaning is rather evenly impacting the surface and PV power output decreases roughly proportionally to the decrease in optical transmittance,” said Miettunen. “On average, the transmittance of the soiled glass sample cleaned with dishwashing detergent was approximately 3% lower compared to that of glass cleaned with best suited cleaning agents. Thus, the impacts on PV output are
expected to be similar.”
“Currently, our group has started investigating soiling caused by snow,” Miettunen added. “In Nordic conditions, especially in late spring, solar radiation can already be significant while electricity demand still remains high. Therefore, we are interested to investigate power losses due to the snow accumulation on PV panels.”
Recently, other researchers at Germen research institute Fraunhofer CSP found that some widely used PV cleaning agents can damage anti reflective glass coatings, significantly reducing solar module efficiency. Their tests showed that while some cleaners are safe, others cause visible and permanent coating degradation, highlighting the need for careful selection of cleaning products to avoid long term performance loss.
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Scientific Reports volume 16, Article number: 9991 (2026)
1041
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In this study, an advanced maximum power point tracking (MPPT) control strategy is proposed for a grid-connected photovoltaic (PV) system using the Hippopotamus Optimization Algorithm (HOA). The Incremental Conductance (IC) MPPT technique is integrated with three control approaches: Integral (I), Proportional-Integral (PI), and Fractional-Order Proportional-Integral (FOPI) controllers. The HOA is employed to optimally tune the controller parameters, and its performance is benchmarked against two other nature-inspired algorithms: the Arithmetic Optimization Algorithm (AOA) and the Grey Wolf Optimizer (GWO). A 100 kW grid-tied PV system connected to a medium-voltage distribution network is modeled and simulated in MATLAB/Simulink 2025a. The optimization process aims to minimize four classical performance indices: IAE, ISE, ITAE, and ITSE. Simulation results demonstrate that the HOA-based FOPI-IC-MPPT configuration achieves superior dynamic performance, exhibiting a minimum rise time of 0.0073 s and a maximum extracted power of 100.72 kW. Under the IAE criterion, compared to AOA and GWO, the proposed method reduces the rise time by 9.88% and the settling time by 19.73%. Although the GWO-based controller outperformed in certain metrics (e.g., ISE), the HOA-based approach achieved a better trade-off between dynamic response and maximum power tracking accuracy, making it a promising solution for real-time grid-connected PV applications under variable environmental conditions.
The world is undergoing a rapid and urgent shift toward renewable energy for electricity generation, largely driven by its environmental advantages especially the fact that it doesn’t produce carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions and the fact that these sources are far more abundant than fossil fuels1. By 2021, the total installed capacity of renewable energy had reached 3,064GW2. That year alone saw an additional 257GW of new renewable energy capacity added2. Among all the green technologies, solar photovoltaic (PV)3. power led the way, contributing 133 GW of the new installations, according to data from the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA)2. A major problem with PV systems is the nonlinear behavior of current-voltage (I-V) and power-voltage (P-V) curves4. To ensure maximum power extraction from the PV system, the PV array voltage must be regulated to the pre-determined maximum power point voltage5. Also, the changing environmental conditions such as solar irradiance and ambient temperature have significant effects on the power output of these systems. Consequently, correct monitoring of the maximum power point (MPPT) under different weather conditions is essential to guarantee a system captures as much energy as possible. This renders application of effective and accurate MPPT techniques critical. There are four broad groups of MPPT techniques: conventional techniques, artificial intelligence (AI)6. based techniques, optimization-based techniques, and hybrid techniques. The most widely used conventional MPPT methods include Incremental Conductance (IC)6. Fractional Short-Circuit Current (FSCC), Fractional Open-Circuit Voltage (FOCV), and Perturb and Observe (P&O)7. AI-based MPPT methods typically employ Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) and Fuzzy Logic Control (FLC)8,9. Optimization-based MPPT techniques utilize algorithms such as Harris Hawks Optimization (HHO)10, Improved Grey Wolf Optimizer (IGWO)11, and Enhanced Squirrel Search Algorithm (ESSA)12,13. Hybrid MPPT techniques integrate conventional and AI-based approaches to leverage the advantages of both or combine AI techniques with metaheuristic optimization algorithms to enhance tracking precision and convergence speed9,10. Hence, Fractional-Order Proportional-Integral (FOPI)14. Controllers are a prominent choice in industrial applications due to their flexible structure and superior performance compared to classical PID variants such as PI or PD15,16. However, the accurate selection of the optimal parameters, namely the proportional gain (:{K}_{P}), integral gain(::{K}_{I}), and the fractional order λ is essential to ensure system stability and dynamic efficiency. In recent years, numerous optimization algorithms have been employed to optimally tune FOPI controllers, including the Marine Predators Algorithm (MPA), Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO)17. Grey Wolf Optimizer (GWO), Gas Solubility Optimization (GSO)18.Cheetah optimizer (CO)19, Grey Wolf Optimizer-Particle Swarm Optimization (GWO-PSO)20. Grasshopper Optimization Algorithm (GOA)21. Ant Lion Optimization (ALO)22, Genetic Algorithm (GA)23, arithmetic optimization algorithm (AOA)24. and the Improved Artificial Bee Colony (IABC) algorithm25, which have been successfully applied across various engineering domains. This study addresses the limitations of existing MPPT tuning methods by introducing the Hippopotamus Optimization Algorithm (HOA) for optimal tuning of IC-based I, PI, and FOPI controllers in a grid-connected photovoltaic system, achieving improved convergence speed, tracking accuracy, and robustness under dynamic operating conditions.
Table 1. provides a comparative analysis of the performance of the Incremental Conductance (IC) maximum power point tracking (MPPT) method when integrated with Integral (I), Proportional-Integral (PI), and fractional-order PI (FOPI) controllers. Accordingly, this study introduces a novel Hippopotamus Optimization Algorithm (HOA). to optimize the parameters of the IC-MPPT method under three distinct control strategies: I, PI, and FOPI. These strategies are implemented within a 100 kW grid-connected photovoltaic system. The proposed method aims to enhance tracking performance, reduce steady-state oscillations, and improve the dynamic response under varying solar irradiance and temperature conditions. By optimally tuning each controller configuration, the HOA-enhanced IC MPPT method demonstrates faster convergence, higher tracking efficiency, and improved stability compared to conventional MPPT techniques.
The key strength of this optimization framework is its capacity to explore a broad range of possibilities when tuning controller parameters. In this study, four widely used performance metrics were applied to identify the most effective control setup26: the Integral of Time-weighted Absolute Error (ITAE), Integral of Absolute Error (IAE), Integral of Time-weighted Squared Error (ITSE), and Integral of Squared Error (ISE).
The core contributions of this research can be outlined as follows:
To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this is the first reported implementation of the HOA for the optimal design of a FOPI controller within an IC MPPT framework for a grid-connected PV power system.
To identify the most effective configuration, all four standard performance metrics IAE, ISE, ITAE, and ITSE were evaluated separately, followed by an overall comparison to determine the optimal control approach.
The proposed HOA-FOPI-IC control strategy was tested on a 100 kW grid-connected PV system, demonstrating its practical suitability for real-world solar energy applications.
Comprehensive testing under various weather conditions, including both minor and major fluctuations, was conducted to assess its tracking accuracy and dynamic stability.
In addition, a comparative study against other optimization techniques, including the Grey Wolf Optimizer (GWO) and the Arithmetic Optimization Algorithm (AOA), highlighted the HOA-based controller’s advantages in convergence speed, tracking performance, and overall robustness.
Photovoltaic (PV) modeling plays a crucial role in analyzing and simulating the performance of solar energy systems under various operating conditions. Several electrical equivalent circuit models have been proposed in the literature, such as the single-diode model (SDM), double-diode model (DDM), and triple-diode model (TDM)36,37. Among these, the SDM is the most widely adopted owing to its balance between simplicity and accuracy, as it requires only a limited number of equivalent circuit parameters to be determined38 Figure 1. illustrates the equivalent circuit of the PV cell based on the SDM.
The current-voltage characteristics of a PV module consisting of Nₛ series-connected cells can be described mathematically by the SDM as given in Eqs. (1)-(6)39,40,41.
One-diode equivalent circuit of theoretical and practical PV cells.
where (:{I}_{ph})denotes the photogenerated current, (:{I}_{d})represents the Shockley diode current, and (:{I}_{sh})is the current flowing through the shunt resistance. (:{I}_{o})refers to the diode saturation current, (:V)is the terminal voltage, and (:{R}_{s})and (:{R}_{sh})denote the series and shunt resistances, respectively. The diode ideality factor is given as (:a=0.94504), while (:{N}_{s})represents the number of cells connected in series. The thermal voltage is denoted by (:{V}_{t}). (:K)is the Boltzmann constant (:left(1.38times{10}^{-23}text{J/K}right)), (:{T}_{c})is the PV cell temperature in Kelvin, and (:q)is the electron charge (:left(1.6times{10}^{-19}text {C}right)). (:G)denotes the solar irradiance. (:{I}_{scn})is the short-circuit current under standard test conditions (STC), denoted by the subscript (:n), corresponding to (:{G}_{n}=1000{text{W/m}}^{2})and (:{T}_{cn}={25C}^{^circ:}). (:{K}_{T})represents the temperature coefficient of the short-circuit current. (:{E}_{g})is the bandgap energy of polycrystalline silicon, equal to 1.12 eV at (:{25C}^{^circ:}), and (:{V}_{ocn})denotes the open-circuit voltage under STC.
The capacity of the PV system under study is 100 kW. The PV array is composed of five parallel-connected strings, each consisting of sixty-six series-connected modules of type SunPower SPR-305E-WHT-D. To ensure maximum power extraction, a FOPI regulator based on the IC MPPT technique is employed. The FOPI controller parameters are optimally tuned using the HOA to minimize the conductance error and accurately determine the MPP. Consequently, the FOPI regulator adjusts the duty cycle of a 500 V boost converter, which is cascaded with a grid-tied inverter connected to the medium-voltage utility grid. Fig. 2 illustrates the schematic block diagram of the proposed framework. Furthermore, the I-V and P-V characteristics under different climatic conditions are depicted in Fig. 3 and 4 respectively. demonstrating that the PV output is highly dependent on both irradiance and temperature42.
The entire system is under MATLAB simulation.
Characteristics of the used array under different irradiance levels.
Characteristics of the used array under different irradiance levels.
The IC technique is one of the most widely used traditional algorithms for MPPT. This method identifies the MPP by comparing the instantaneous conductance (:(I/V)) with the incremental conductance (:(dI/dV)) 43,44. According to this principle, the PV array reaches its MPP when (:(dI/dV)=-(I/V)), as expressed in (7). If (:(dI/dV)>-(I/V)), the operating point lies to the left of the MPP. Conversely, when (:(dI/dV)<-(I/V)), the operating point is on the right side of the MPP, as illustrated in Fig. 5.
The process of the INC algorithm.
FOPI controllers have gained widespread popularity in power electronic and industrial applications due to better flexibility and higher robustness compared to classical I and PI controllers in Eq. (8). Unlike classical controllers, FOPI has fast convergence around the reference point and higher steady-state accuracy and is highly successful in nonlinear and time-varying systems. An optimally tuned FOPI controller ensures optimal values of proportional gain (KP) and integral gain (KI) and the fractional order (λ) that provide an extra degree of freedom to maximize dynamic response and stability. Various optimization algorithms are employed by researchers to tune FOPI controllers, such as the whale optimization algorithm, genetic algorithm, cuckoo search, and Artificial Bee Colony, in a trial to reduce errors in PV MPPT methods. The overall process of optimal controller design using biological optimization algorithms is illustrated in Fig. 6.
Optimal cost function minimizes error signal (:eleft(tright)) resulting from the IC approach such that optimal MPPT performance utilizing the four standard indices IAE, ISE, ITAE, and ITSE is realized and applies mathematical model in Eq. (9) 45 to graphically demonstrate superior effectiveness of resultant developed FOPI-based control method.
where(::{t}_{ss}:)is the steady state response and
.
Use of biological algorithms for the optimal design of MPPT controller.
Launched in 202446. As a novel and original approach to metaheuristic optimization, the HOA sees its first usage. Relying on what hippopotamuses do when navigating groups, defending themselves against threats, and when fleeing away super quickly, the algorithm inquires these actions to guide the process of optimization. As a population base method, the use of HOA is effective in regard to exploration and exploitation, making it a useful method of solving complex and multi variable optimization problems.
The behavioral model of HOA is based on three key phases observed in hippopotamuses:
Exploration phase: Hippopotamuses update their position in rivers or ponds while interacting with the dominant male and the rest of the herd.
Defense phase: In response to predator threats, a hippopotamus may turn aggressively and attempt to repel the attacker.
Exploitation (Escape) phase: If defense fails, the hippopotamus retreats rapidly toward a safer location (typically water).
These natural instincts are mathematically encoded to perform global and local research effectively during the optimization process. This sequence of behavioral strategies is visually illustrated in Fig. 7.
(a–d) Samples of strategies that a hippopotamus utilizes against a predator.
Let the search space be bounded between a lower bound(:left(text{l}text{b}right)) and upper bound(:left(text{u}text{b}right)). The position of each hippopotamus (candidate solution) is initialized as.
Initialization.
Let the search space be bounded between a (:lb) and (:ub). The position of each hippopotamus (candidate solution) is initialized as:
The population matrix is:
Phase 1: Position Update (Exploration).
Male hippopotamuses update their positions relative to the dominant individual as:
Female or immature hippopotamuses may drift from the group as
Phase 2: Defensive Behavior (Enhanced Exploration).
If the predator is too close, the hippopotamus attempts to defend, as shown in Fig. 8:
Graphic representation of phase2.
Phase 3: Escaping from Predators (Exploitation)
To escape, a hippopotamus moves locally around its current position in [0,1] respectively; ϑ is a constant (ϑ = 1.5), (:{Gamma:}) is an abbreviation for Gamma function and (:{sigma:}_{w}) can be obtained by Eq. (19), as shown in Fig. 9.
Depiction of an incremental hippopotamus escaping away from its menacing predator.
The steps of HOA can be summarized as in Fig. 10.
Step-by-step flowchart of the HOA algorithm for metaheuristic optimization.
The Grey Wolf Optimization (GWO) algorithm, introduced by Mir Jalili et al. in 201447. is a nature-inspired metaheuristic that draws on the social behavior and hunting tactics of grey wolves. It replicates how wolves work together to hunt prey and follow a structured leadership system. In a typical wolf pack, roles are divided into four hierarchical levels: the alpha (α) serves as the leader, followed by the beta (β), then the delta (δ), with the omega (ω) occupying the lowest rank. The step-by-step process of the GWO algorithm is shown in Fig. 11.
To ensure optimal performance, the maximum number of iterations ((:text{M}_text{I}text{t}text{e}text{r})) and the number of search agents for each algorithm were selected based on multiple trial runs. Generally, increasing these values leads to more accurate outcomes but at the cost of longer computation time. The lower and upper bounds were initially set using a broad range and then fine-tuned through experimentation to strike a balance between precision and processing efficiency.
Flowchart of the GWO Algorithm.
starting with a wide boundary and changing it if the results were not the best until reaching the suitable boundary. For fair judgment, the same number of iterations, search agent and lower and upper boundaries are selected for each algorithm as demonstrated in Table 2. All optimization algorithms were executed offline to obtain the optimal controller parameters, which were then implemented in the MPPT control loop.
The simulation process follows a structured approach consisting of the following steps:
Choose a suitable number of search agents and iteration counts for each of the selected metaheuristic algorithms HOA, AOA and GWO.
Set the upper and lower limits for the FOPI controller parameters (KP, KI, λ) to strike a balance between precision and fast system response.
Use performance metrics such as IAE, ISE, ITAE and ITSE retrieved from the Simulink model as the cost functions for optimization.
Apply the HOA, AOA and GWO algorithms to the PV simulation model, ensuring all defined constraints are respected.
Integrate the optimized parameters produced by the algorithms into the simulation environment.
Evaluate and select the set of controller gains that achieves the most effective overall performance.
The entire simulation framework is visually represented in Fig. 12.
Simulation framework.
The system was assessed under four climate situations, which are shown in every case study. The HOA as well as AOA were applied to the GWO method to select the optimal settings for both I, PI and FOPI controllers based on IAE, ISE, ITAE and ITSE, as presented in Table 3. The approach includes identifying the best index for each algorithm based on how it performs when steady and variable. The best configuration for each algorithm was selected for fair comparison and is presented in Table 4. Among the dynamic response indices, the ISE criterion proved to be the most effective under the HOA-based MPPT technique, achieving the fastest settling time of 0.00069800s, followed by IAE at 0.0006998s, ITAE at 0.0006998s, and ITSE with the slowest response at 0.0009997s. In terms of extracted power, the ISE index yielded the highest value at 100.65 kW, followed by ITSE 100.60 kW, IAE 100.55kWand ITAE 100.52 kW as shown in Fig. 13. Despite these differences in power output, no notable variations were observed among the indices regarding rise time or overshoot. Furthermore, the photovoltaic output voltage demonstrated the highest level of smoothness under the ISE criterion, reaching a minimum of 273.9 V, compared to 273.7 V for ITSE, 273.5 V for IAE and 273.3 V for ITAE, as shown in Fig. 14. Accordingly, the ISE index can be considered the most appropriate criterion for evaluating the performance of the HOA-based MPPT technique. Transitioning to the AOA-based MPPT, the ISE index again demonstrated superior effectiveness by achieving the fastest settling time of 0.0005997s, followed by ITAE at 0.0006995s, ITSE at 0.0059966s and finally IAE with the slowest response at 0.0090909s. The ISE index also yielded the highest extracted power of 100.6 kW, outperforming ITSE 100.4 kW, ITAE 100.3 kW, and IAE 98.5 kW, as shown in Fig. 15. All error-based indices exhibited very similar rise times with only minor differences in overshoot. Regarding the photovoltaic output voltage, the smoothest performance was achieved using the ITSA index, which reached a minimum of 274.5 V, compared to 274.3 V in ITAE, 273.5 V in ISE, and 273 V in IAE, as shown in Fig. 16. Accordingly, the ISE index can be considered the most appropriate criterion for evaluating the performance of the AOA-based MPPT technique. Finally, in the case of the GWO-based MPPT, ITAE demonstrated the lowest settling time, reaching steady-state power at 0.0005993s, followed by ISE at 0.0005995s, ITSE at 0.0005997s, and IAE at 0.0005999s. In terms of extracted power, ITAE yielded the highest value of 99.97 kW, followed by ISE with 99.95 kW, IAE with 96.9 kW, and ITSE with 94.95 kW, as shown in Fig. 17. Although ITAE achieved a slightly shorter rise time than ISE, ITSE reached a steady state faster with a slightly lower overshoot. Furthermore, the PV output voltage was smoothest under the ITAT index, where the minimum voltage was 273 V, followed by ITSA at 272.9 V, ISE at 272.75 V and IAE at 272.65 V, as shown in Fig. 18. Accordingly, the ITAE index can be considered the most appropriate criterion for evaluating the performance of the GWO-based MPPT technique.
As summarized in Table 5, the proposed HOA-based MPPT achieves the highest maximum power output and efficiency, along with the lowest power loss and tracking error, while maintaining a lower implementation cost compared to recent reference algorithms.
PV power-based HOA.
Voltage of the PV-based HOA.
PV power-based AOA.
Voltage of the PV-based AOA.
PV power-based GWO.
Voltage of the PV-based GWO.
Ramp pattern for both increasing temperature and solar irradiance.
The first scenario considers a constant temperature condition with a step change in solar irradiance, as illustrated in Figs. 19 and 20. Figures 21 and 22 present the PV power and voltage responses obtained using the optimal parameter settings of the HOA, AOA and GWO algorithms. Among these, the PV system employing the AOA algorithm demonstrates the fastest settling time, followed by AOA, whereas the MIC algorithm exhibits the slowest response, characterized by pronounced oscillations and the minimum power output 75 kW, despite achieving the smallest overshoot.
Constant temperature.
Step Irradiance.
PV Output Power.
PV Output Voltage.
Furthermore, the PV voltage obtained using the HOA algorithm exhibits the smoothest profile, followed by AOA whereas the GWO algorithm yields the least stable response. Figure 24 illustrates the utility’s three-phase voltage, which has a peak phase voltage of 20 kV. Figure 23 presents the DC-link voltage, regulated at the reference level of 500 V, which remains nearly constant except for a slight increase at t = 0.9s, corresponding to the step change in irradiance from 0 to 1000 W/m². Figure 25 depicts the HOA-based grid current, which closely follows the irradiance pattern under constant temperature conditions.
DC link voltage.
Grid voltage-HOA.
Grid current-HOA.
Constant temperature with a stepwise varying solar irradiance pattern.
bn In the second scenario, both solar irradiance and temperature vary gradually in a ramp-like manner as shown in Figs. 26 and 27. The corresponding dynamic responses of PV output power and voltage obtained using the HOA, AOA and GWO algorithms are presented in Figs. 28 and 29. The results show that PV output power increases proportionally with irradiance and decreases inversely with temperature. At t = 0:0.5s, the minimum PV power achieved by the HOA algorithm is 99.9 kW followed by AOA with 99.5 kW and GWO with 93 kW. Moreover, under low-irradiance conditions, the HOA algorithm demonstrates superior performance compared to AOA and GWO. Therefore, HOA consistently outperforms the other algorithms in both steady-state and transient responses.
Ramp temperature.
Ramp Irradiance.
PV Output Power.
PV Output voltage.
Figures 30, 31 and 32 the DC-link voltage, which is consistently held at the reference level of 500 V; the HOA-based grid current, which closely tracks the irradiance pattern at t = 0.16s under stable temperature conditions and exhibits a slight drop between t = 2–2.1 s as the temperature increases; and the HOA grid voltage, which corresponds to a peak phase voltage of 20KV.
DC link voltage.
Grid current-based HOA.
Grid voltage-based HOA.
Constant temperature with different levels of solar irradiance.
In the third scenario, under constant temperature conditions with varying solar irradiance, as illustrated in Figs. 33 and 34. Figure 35 illustrates the dynamic response of the PV system power under the application of HOA, AOA and GWO algorithms. Since the temperature remains constant throughout the test the PV power output directly follows the variations in solar irradiance. All algorithms successfully tracked the power under different irradiance levels; however, the HOA achieved the best performance during the time interval t = 1.2:1.3s, followed by AOA and finally GWO respectively.
Constant temperature.
Different Irradiance.
PV Output Power.
Figure 36 illustrates the PV output voltage corresponding to the algorithms. The PV voltage obtained using the HOA algorithm demonstrates the highest level of smoothness and stability, achieving a minimum voltage of 270.3 V followed by AOA at 268.8 V and GWO at 267.2 V respectively. Figures 37, 38 and 39 present the DC link voltage with a reference value of 500 V the utility current derived from the HOA algorithm that follows the irradiance pattern under constant temperature conditions, and the utility voltage exhibiting a peak phase voltage of 20 kV respectively.
PV Output voltage.
DC link voltage.
Grid voltage-based HOA.
Grid current-based HOA.
Varying temperature combined with varying solar irradiance.
In this final scenario, which involves variable temperature and variable solar irradiance as illustrated in Figs. 40 and 41 Figs. 42 and 43 present the dynamic responses of the PV system’s output power and voltage under the HOA, AOA and GWO algorithms. All algorithms successfully tracked the PV power in accordance with variations in irradiance and temperature. The results indicate that the HOA algorithm achieved the fastest power tracking performance, followed by AOA and finally GWO. Moreover, the PV voltage decreases with increasing temperature, demonstrating an inverse relationship between voltage and temperature.
Variable irradiance level pattern.
Variable irradiance level temperature.
PV Output Power.
PV Output voltage.
Figures 44, 45 and 46 respectively illustrate the DC-link voltage at the reference value of 500 V the utility current obtained using the AOA algorithm that corresponds to irradiance and temperature variations, and the utility voltage waveform.
DC link voltage.
Grid voltage-HOA.
Grid current-HOA.
In this study, the HOA was used to fine-tune a FOPI-IC-MPPT controller for a 100 kW grid-connected PV system. The effectiveness of this approach was compared with GWO and AOA across four different climate scenarios: constant temperature with step changes in irradiance ramping irradiance with gradually increasing temperature fluctuating irradiance at a constant temperature, and both irradiance and temperature varying simultaneously. Simulation results showed that in the first scenario HOA significantly improved system performance by reducing rise time by 61%, 3% and 4.5% and settling time by 94%, 84.7% and 86.6% compared to MIC, GWO and AOA respectively. This led to a noticeable boost in maximum power output. In the second scenario, HOA demonstrated quicker dynamic responses than both GWO and AOA. In the third scenario, all three algorithms successfully tracked the MPP. In the fourth HOA delivered the fastest tracking of both PV voltage and extracted power, outperforming the other two methods.
Overall, the results confirm that using HOA to optimize the FOPI-IC-MPPT controller offers a robust and efficient solution for grid-connected PV systems. It provides fast response times, lower error rates, and improved energy harvesting, even under challenging and changing environmental conditions. In future work, will focus on evaluating the proposed HOA-based IC-MPPT under realistic irradiance profiles and hybridizing it with artificial intelligence techniques to enable global maximum power point extraction under partial shading conditions in grid-connected photovoltaic systems.
The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
Addition arithmetic operator
Ideality factor for diode
Position of best-attained solution till now C_Iter
Division arithmetic operator
Incremental conductance term
Error
Bandgap energy of polycrystalline silicon
Solar irradiance
Instantaneous incremental conductance
Diode current
Reverse saturation current of the diode
Photogenerated current
Short circuit current at STC
Current through parallel resistance
Boltzmann constant (1.38 × 10–23 J/K)
Integral gain
Proportional gain
Lambda
Temperature coefficient
Lower boundary of the jth position
Multiplication arithmetic operator
Maximum number of iterations
Dimension
Function
Math Optimizer Accelerated
Math Optimizer probability
The number of series cells
Electron charge (1.6 × 10–19 C)
Random numbers
Series resistance of PV cell
Shunt resistance
Subtraction arithmetic operator
Temperature of PV cell in Kelvin
Steady-state time response
Upper boundary of the jth position
Terminal voltage
Open circuit voltage at STC
Thermal voltage
Artificial intelligence
Arithmetic optimization algorithm
Hippopotamus Optimization Algorithm
Current-Voltage relationship
Double diode model of PV cell
Fractional open-circuit voltage
Fractional short circuit current
Grey wolf optimization
Integral absolute error
Incremental conductance
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The authors extend their appreciation to the Deanship of Scientific Research at Northern Border University, Arar, KSA, for funding this research (through the project number NBU-FFR-2026-2124-01).
This research was funded by the Deanship of Scientific Research at Northern Border University, Arar, KSA, for funding this research (through the project number NBU-FFR-2026-2124-01).
Electrical Engineering Technical College, Middle Technical University, Baghdad, Iraq
Salah A. Taha & Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada
Department of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering at Shoubra, Benha University, Cairo, Egypt
Mohamed Ahmed Ebrahim Mohamed
Department of Electrical Engineering, College of Engineering, Northern Border University, Arar, 91431, Saudi Arabia
Mohammed Alruwaili
Electrical Engineering Department, University of Business and Technology, Jeddah, 23435, Saudi Arabia
Ahmed Emara
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Salah A. Taha: Conceptualization, methodology, supervision, and overall project administration.Mohammed Abdulla Abdulsada: Software implementation, simulation, and data analysis.Mohamed Ahmed Ebrahim Mohamed: Validation, result interpretation, and manuscript drafting.Mohammed Alruwaili: Resources, visualization, and technical review of the manuscript.Ahmed Emara: Formal analysis, manuscript revision, and correspondence with the journal.All authors contributed to manuscript revision, approved the final version, and agreed to be accountable for all aspects of the work.
Correspondence to Salah A. Taha or Ahmed Emara.
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Researchers in Singapore have developed fully vacuum-processed ultrathin perovskite solar cells with absorber layers as thin as 10 nm, achieving high transparency and stable efficiencies up to 12%. These cells balance optical transparency and electrical performance, offering scalable, design-flexible photovoltaics suitable for seamless integration into buildings.
Fully vacuum-processed semi-transparent perovskite solar cells with different absorber thicknesses, enabling high average visible transmissivity and tuneable color features, both beneficial for architectural photovoltaics
Image: Nanyang Technological University (NTU)
Researchers from Nanyang Technological University (NTU) in Singapore have developed ultrathin perovskite solar cells with absorber layers as thin as just tens of nanometers.
The research work tackles a key challenge in the development of transparent photovoltaics: balancing optical transparency with electrical performance without sacrificing scalability or manufacturability while maintaining minimal instrument safety.
“We push perovskite solar cells to the ultimate thickness limit, demonstrating fully vacuum-processed devices with absorbers down to around 10 nm compared to the conventional 500–700 nm range, making them both efficient and aesthetically beautiful and see-through,” NTU researcher Annalisa Bruno told pv magazine. “This represents a step toward scalable, design-flexible photovoltaic systems suitable for seamless integration into buildings.”
For their experiments, the scientists used planar methylammonium lead iodide (MAPbI3) perovskite films grown on a Spiro-TTB hold transport layer (HTL) and and a self-assembled monolayer (SAM). Film thickness was varied from 10 to 700 nm, with optical studies showing bandgap widening at ultrathin scales due to quantum confinement.
X-ray diffraction (XRD) showed that the film’s composition and crystal orientation change with thickness, improving charge flow in p.i.n. devices. Field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM) confirmed that the films are smooth, uniform, and stable even at just 10 nm thick.
The perovksite cell design consisted of a substrate made of glass and indium tin oxide (ITO), the Spiro-TTB HTL, the perovskite absorber, a buckminsterfullerene (C60) electron transport layer (ETL), a bathocuproine (BCP) buffer layer, and a silver (Ag) metal contact.
Tested under standard illumination conditions, the cells built with 10 nm, 30 nm, and 60 nm absorbers achieved power conversion efficiencies of 7 %, 11%, and 12%, respectively, and they maintained their performances also in the low-illumination regime.
Moreover, the 30 nm and 60 nm devices showed the highest reported light-utilization efficiency (LUE) for ultrathin devices, indicating a favourable balance between transparency and performance. The 10 nm cell, by contrast, showed reduced open-circuit voltage and some hysteresis, suggesting processing optimization is needed.
“The 60 nm-thick cell achieved an average visible transparency of about 41% with a power conversion efficiency close to 8%, with a LUE of 3.13. These values of LUE, with further optical engineering, have the potential to reach LUE values above 5%,” said the research lead author Luke White. “All devices exhibited near colour-neutral transparency, with a color rendering index of 79.7, suggesting compatibility with architectural requirements.”
The cell design was presented in “Ultrathin Fully Vacuum-Processed Perovskite Solar Cells with Absorbers Down to 10 nm,” published in ACS Energy Letters.
“Our findings are particularly relevant for the built environment, which represents a significant share of global energy demand,” said Bruno. “Technologies that enable buildings to generate electricity without altering their appearance are expected to play a central role in the expansion of distributed renewables. Perovskite materials are especially promising in this context, thanks to their tunable optical properties, compatibility with low-temperature processing, and potential for large-area manufacturing.”
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Brian Grenko
After passage of the One Big Beautiful Bill Act (OBBBA), IRS Notice 2025-42 eliminated the “Five Percent Safe Harbor” allowance for solar facilities with more than 1.5 MWac of generation capacity. As a result, most commercial solar projects must now meet rigorous “physical work of a significant nature” requirements to establish federal tax credit eligibility. Projects that miss this deadline face an 18-month placed-in-service window that could be difficult to meet.
In a post-OBBBA environment, solar project tax credit optimization is fundamentally an exercise in meeting the U.S. Department of Treasury’s so-called “beginning of construction” requirements ahead of a fast-approaching July 4, 2026, deadline. Here is a high-level overview of IRS standards pertaining to Notice 2025-42, along with an overview of critical success factors for establishing and maintaining solar project tax credit eligibility.
Solar power generation projects that commence construction after Sept. 2, 2025—the effective start date for Notice 2025-42—only qualify for Five Percent Safe Harbor if the installed capacity does not exceed 1.5 MWac. Per IRS guidance, solar facilities that exceed 1.5 MWac must now satisfy a new Physical Work Test to establish eligibility for the Section 48E investment tax credit (ITC) or Section 45Y production tax credit (PTC). In other words, the Physical Work Test is a new IRS standard used to determine when construction officially “begins” for tax credit qualification purposes.
As the name suggests, the Physical Work Test focuses on the nature of physical work activities performed. To meet the Physical Work Test, owners must demonstrate that “physical work of a significant nature” has started. Importantly, project owners can meet this standard using qualifying onsite physical work activities, carefully qualified offsite manufacturing activities, or a combination of both. (For a deep dive on qualifying work activities, see VDE Americas’ technical memorandum, “Navigating Beginning of Construction Requirements for Solar Projects,” available at bit.ly/VDE-POWER.) While the Physical Work Test is available to all commercial solar projects, it is the exclusive means of establishing start of construction for tax credit eligibility for facilities larger than 1.5 MWac.
Under Notice 2025-42, a solar project’s beginning of construction date affects a wide range of critical tax credit parameters. Generally, the earlier a project establishes its beginning of construction date the more it can benefit from improved project economics and reduced execution risks.
For both the ITC and PTC, the official beginning of construction date locks in applicable prevailing wage rates and apprenticeship level requirements. Moreover, the beginning of construction date also sets the U.S.-made content requirements for the 10% Domestic Content Bonus Credit. For PTC purposes, the beginning of construction date locks in a project’s ability to access the 10% Energy Community Tax Credit Bonus.
Importantly, the beginning of construction date also impacts a project’s exposure to Foreign Entity of Concern (FEOC) tax credit restrictions. On one hand, projects that started construction prior to Sept. 2, 2025, have limited exposure to supply chain risks associated with foreign companies linked to China, Russia, Iran, or North Korea. On the other hand, Notice 2025-42 introduced FEOC credit restrictions that escalate over time based on the official beginning of construction date.
Note that Section 48E triggers a full ITC recapture in the event of prohibited payments, whereas Section 45Y appears to deny PTC credits only in specific years when prohibited payments occur. These differences may be relevant to projects with Chinese supply chain exposure. Treasury recently released long-awaited Notice 2026-15 to provide further guidance on credit restrictions.
In the wake of the OBBBA, project stakeholders should endeavor to meet the July 4 beginning of construction deadline wherever practicable. Projects that meet this deadline qualify for a four-year continuity safe harbor triggered based on the beginning of construction calendar year. In other words, projects that meet the July 4 deadline and began or will begin construction last year or this year automatically satisfy Treasury’s continuous program of construction requirements so long as they are placed in service by the end of 2029 or 2030, respectively.
Qualifying projects that extend beyond this four-year continuity safe harbor period can still qualify for tax credits. However, the administrative burden increases significantly, as these projects must be able to demonstrate continuous construction progress.
Strategies for demonstrating progress include performing physical construction activities, documenting timelines for work performed, maintaining financial evidence of ongoing progress, and thoroughly tracking unavoidable work delays. Examples of potentially excusable delays include transformer supply constraints, utility interconnection backlogs, regulatory approval bottlenecks, and force majeure events.
Projects that fail to meet the July 4 beginning of construction deadline must be placed in service by Dec. 31, 2027. If stakeholders cannot meet this compressed commissioning and construction timeline, the project will not qualify for federal tax credits. Meeting the beginning of construction deadline will not only mitigate acute execution risks but also help prevent the construction quality issues that often accompany a rush to completion.
—Brian Grenko is CEO and president of the technical advisory firm VDE Americas.
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Since the Solar Energy Technologies Office (SETO) launched the SunShot Initiative in 2011, solar has made great strides in the United States. In early 2011, solar power comprised less than 0.1% of the U.S. electricity supply with an installed capacity of just 3 gigawatts. As of 2017, solar now supplies more than 1% of U.S. electricity demand with an installed capacity of more than 47 gigawatts.
The solar office has continuously worked toward its goal of enabling solar electricity costs to be competitive with conventionally generated electricity by 2020, without subsidies. During this time, the solar industry has seen tremendous progress in cost reduction. In 2017, the solar industry achieved SunShot’s original 2020 cost target of $0.06 per kilowatt-hour for utility-scale photovoltaic (PV) solar power three years ahead of schedule, dropping from about $0.28 to $0.06 per kilowatt-hour (kWh). Cost targets for residential- and commercial-scale solar have dropped from $0.52 to $0.16 and from $0.40 to $0.11 per kWh respectively.
Building off of and updating the original SunShot vision, the Solar Energy Technologies Office set goals for 2030. The goals cut the levelized cost of energy (LCOE) of photovoltaic solar by an additional 50% to $0.03 per kWh for utility-scale and cut the LCOE of concentrating solar power to $0.05 per kWh for baseload power plants, while also addressing grid integration challenges and addressing key market barriers in order to enable greater solar adoption. Achieving these goals would make solar one of the least expensive sources of new electricity generation and spur growth across the country.
The 2030 goals were announced on November 14, 2016. Read the press release and download the report that highlights the 2030 goals.
At $0.03 per kilowatt-hour, electricity from utility-scale photovoltaic solar would be among the least expensive options for new power generation and it would be below the cost of most fossil fuel-powered generators, contributing to greater energy affordability. Learn more about how LCOE is calculated.
CSP with thermal energy storage directly addresses grid integration challenges, allowing solar-generated heat to be stored until electricity is needed, even well after the sun sets. Reflecting this increased value of dispatchable solar, there are two 2030 targets for CSP:
These targets are highly competitive with other dispatchable power generators and would enable greater overall penetration of solar electricity on the grid, while also enabling more reliable solar energy generation and increasing its value.
In addition to the 50% reduction in LCOE, the solar office will work to advance grid integration solutions, including integration of solar with energy storage, enhanced grid flexibility, communications, and controls. Combining very low-cost storage (capital costs at $100/kWh for an 8-hour battery by 2040) with low-cost PV could enable solar energy to supply a large share of U.S. electricity by 2050. Recent NREL Regional Energy Deployment System projections using today’s baseline assumptions for all technologies other than solar and storage illustrate the potential impact of lower cost solar and storage.
The goals also address market barriers that limit solar adoption, including streamlining processes to reduce project time cycles, expanding access to solar, and accurately representing solar’s value in a more integrated energy system.
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An IEA-PVPS report finds that solar power above 60° North is not only viable but rapidly expanding, driven by cold-climate performance gains, bifacial technologies, and rising energy security needs. While challenges like extreme seasonality, snow, permafrost, and scarce data remain, Arctic PV is emerging as a critical—and technically distinct—frontier for global solar deployment.
A snow-covered pv system
Image: Firat University, Case Studies in Thermal Engineering, CC BY 4.0
For decades, the Arctic has been dismissed as a solar dead zone. Long winters, heavy snow loads, and extreme cold seemed to rule out photovoltaics as a serious energy option for communities above the 60th parallel. A new report from the IEA Photovoltaic Power Systems Programme (Task 13) challenges that assumption, arguing that solar PV is not just viable in the Arctic, but increasingly essential to the region’s energy security.
The 77-page report, titled “Photovoltaics and Energy Security in the Greater Arctic Region“ and authored by researchers across the US, Canada, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, and Finland, arrives at a moment when Arctic PV capacity is growing at rates of 46 to 145% per year in some regions. Total installed capacity above 60°N now stands at roughly 1,400 MWp as of 2023 — still a tiny fraction of global capacity, but the trajectory is unmistakable.
First and foremost, when planning a PV project at higher latitudes, the starting point must be considering seasonality: near the summer solstice in June, high-latitude regions receive large amounts of solar radiation. In contrast, near the winter solstice in December high-latitude regions receive little solar radiation (or not at all above the Arctic Circle at 66.56°N).
Bridging the gap between the intensity of summer and the scarcity of winter is the defining integration challenge for Arctic PV systems, and one that is addressed at length throughout the report.
The report’s central argument rests on a counterintuitive insight: cold is not the enemy of solar panels. It’s often an advantage.
Silicon PV cells produce more power at lower temperatures because the semiconductor bandgap widens, boosting voltage. The report cites data from a south-facing system in Alaska, where the median module temperature during daylight hours was just 15°C, which is far below the 25°C standard test condition at which panels are rated. In cold climates, modules may also degrade more slowly, with a median performance loss rate of just -0.37%/year measured across 16 systems above 59°N, compared to -0.75%/year for systems across the continental United States.
Snow, meanwhile, is a double-edged factor. It can block panels and stress racking systems, but it also dramatically raises ground albedo, potentially boosting the rear-side gain of bifacial modules to levels unseen in lower latitudes. The report notes that bifacial gain increases with latitude precisely because of long-lasting snow cover, increased diffuse light, and low solar elevation angles. The recommendation is clear: bifacial modules should be the default technology choice for Arctic deployments.
One of the report’s more striking practical findings concerns system orientation. East-west facing vertical bifacial arrays show particular promise above 60°N. Their near-90° tilt sheds snow naturally, avoiding the extended zero-production periods that plague tilted fixed-tilt systems in winter. They also produce power earlier and later in the day, better matching electricity demand curves and reducing the “cannibalization effect” that depresses midday wholesale prices.
Field data from a vertically-mounted agrivoltaic system in Sweden (59.55°N) illustrates the point. In December 2023, the vertical system outperformed its south-facing fixed-tilt neighbor on 28 out of 31 days, averaging 6.1 kWh/kW/month versus just 1.32 kWh/kW for the tilted array. On 14 of those days, the tilted system produced nothing at all due to snow coverage.
However, there is one section of the report that deserves special attention from developers: the discussion of frost heave and permafrost. Two detailed case studies — a 699 kW system in Luleå, Sweden, and a 563 kW array in Fairbanks, Alaska — document costly structural failures caused by ground freezing that installers failed to adequately anticipate.
In Luleå, perforated C-profile piles allowed the clay substrate to grip the racking, causing visible deformation within the first winter. The entire racking system had to be replaced with deeper, non-perforated piles. In Fairbanks, helical piles in a historically filled slough zone were jacked out of the ground and sank, breaking modules and requiring partial disassembly and reinstallation at 5.5 m depth.
The lesson from both cases: standard geotechnical surveys designed for construction and road work are not adequate for PV racking in frost-prone soils. Developers must commission surveys with PV-specific methodology, and should factor in the less obvious effect of the array itself.
In permafrost regions, the problem compounds further. Monitoring data from an array in Kotzebue, Alaska, shows that snow drifts accumulating behind solar rows are warming the permafrost, potentially destabilizing foundations over time. According to the report, solar arrays in these environments can act as snow fences, and the long-term structural consequences remain poorly understood.
For developers seeking to bankroll Arctic projects, the report identifies a persistent obstacle: the almost total absence of high-quality irradiance data above 60°N. Geostationary satellites degrade in accuracy beyond 65° latitude. Polar-orbiting satellites struggle to distinguish snow from cloud cover. Ground-based measurement networks are sparse, and those that exist face unique maintenance challenges, such as rime ice forming on radiometer domes, malfunctioning tracker mechanisms, and limited site access in winter.
As a result, energy yield assessments for Arctic projects carry substantially higher uncertainty than those at lower latitudes, which leads to complicated financing. The authors call for investment in heated, ventilated measurement instruments, rigorous maintenance protocols, and expanded ground-station networks across high-latitude regions.
The country-level data in the report paints a picture of a region moving fast despite the obstacles. Norway’s PV capacity above 60°N reached 173 MW in 2023, growing at 145% annually, with the country targeting 8 TWh of solar generation by 2030. Finland crossed 1 GW nationally and projects up to 9.1 GW by 2030. Arctic Sweden’s installed base hit 350 MW with a five-year mean growth rate of 58%/year, and utility-scale ground-mounted parks are now entering the permitting pipeline at gigawatt scale.
In North America, the story is different but equally dynamic. Alaska’s total PV capacity reached roughly 30 MW at end-2023, with the largest single facility at 8.5 MW and a 45 MW project announced for the Railbelt grid. More than 150 isolated diesel-dependent rural microgrids are receiving funding for solar-plus-storage systems, with some already capable of 100% renewable operation during favorable conditions.
The overarching message of this report is that the Arctic solar market is real, it is growing, and it has specific technical requirements that the global PV industry has not yet fully addressed. Bifacial vertical arrays, PV-specific geotechnical standards, Arctic-grade snow loss modeling, and expanded irradiance datasets are not nice-to-haves, but rather the foundations on which a credible high-latitude solar industry must be built.
Author: Ignacio Landivar
To access the full “Photovoltaics and Energy Security in the Greater Arctic Region,” you can download it here.
IEA PVPS Task 13 focuses on international collaboration to improve the reliability of photovoltaic systems and subsystems. This is achieved by collecting, analyzing, and disseminating information about their technical performance and durability. This creates a basis for their technical evaluation and develops practical recommendations to increase their electrical and economic efficiency in various climate regions.
The views and opinions expressed in this article are the author’s own, and do not necessarily reflect those held by pv magazine.
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Researchers in Japan have developed a new material that allows solar cells to generate an amount of energy from sunlight that was previously thought impossible.
The discovery, made by a team at Kyushu University, involves a special “spin-flip” emitter that can harvest energy from the Sun that is typically lost as heat.
The breakthrough overcomes the long-standing limit of conventional solar cells to achieve an energy conversion efficiency of 130 per cent – opening up new possibilities for ultra-efficient solar panels.
With conventional solar cells, a single particle of light called a photon can generate one energy carrier, known as an exciton.
Until now, solar cell technology has only been able to harvest energy from about one-third of the available sunlight due to higher-energy photons, like blue light, being lost as heat.
The researchers used a process called singlet fission to split the excitons from the higher-energy photons into two lower-energy excitons – theoretically doubling the energy.
“We have two main strategies to break through this limit,” said Yoichi Sasaki, Associate Professor at Kyushu University’s Faculty of Engineering.
“One is to convert lower-energy infrared photons into higher energy visible photons. The other is to use singlet fission to generate two excitons from a single exciton photon.”
The research was published in the Journal of the American Chemical Society, in a study titled ‘Exploring spin-state selective harvesting pathways from singlet fission dimers to a near-infrared-enissive spin-flip emitter’.
The discovery is the latest in a string of recent breakthroughs with solar technology, making the renewable energy sector increasingly efficient and cost effective.
Earlier this month, a team in Switzerland set a new efficiency record for a new type of solar cell using the ‘miracle material’ perovskite.
By combining it with silicon, the researchers were able to achieve efficiency levels that rival satellite-grade solar panels at a fraction of the cost.
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Avangrid Installs 250,000 U.S.-Made Solar Panels At Oregon’s 166 MW Tower Solar Project solarquarter.com
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Posted by Emma Cooke | Apr 1, 2026 | Environment, Nonprofit
While not visible to those passing by, something new decorates the rooftop of TABLE’s downtown Carrboro facility — solar panels that will allow the local food pantry to serve more than 40,000 more meals over the next three decades. They were installed earlier this month as a partnership with the UNC student-led club SolarEquity, which strives to reduce energy burdens for low-income communities and create a more sustainable future.
On March 27, members of the Chapel Hill and Carrboro communities, students, and partners of the project gathered at the food bank to celebrate the 18 new solar panels with a ribbon-cutting. On the particularly sunny day, the event featured speeches from TABLE’s team and members of SolarEquity — the driving force behind the project.
The ribbon-cutting took place at TABLE’s downtown Carrboro facility on March 27. Attendees included community members and local partners of the project, like SolarEquity, the East Chapel Hill Rotary Club, Southern Energy Management, and more. (Photo by Emma Cooke/Chapel Hill Media Group.)
The campus organization is dedicated to leading solar installation projects across North Carolina, typically for affordable housing developments. But SolarEquity President Caroline White said the club was presented with a different kind of opportunity to serve the community after Blue Ridge Power donated it commercial grade panels last year.
“They could not go on [a] residence,” White said. “They couldn’t go on any kind of low income housing, which are the projects we usually do.”
“And as we started looking to food pantries, TABLE pretty much became the obvious answer,” she continued. “Like how incredible they are at being involved in the Orange County community and how they can feed 1,200 kids a week. It really is an incredible organization that we thought, ‘My goodness, we would be lucky to be able to provide solar to them and be able to save them thousands [of dollars].’”
The panels were installed mid-March after more than a year of planning, fundraising, and help from the East Chapel Hill Rotary Club. Over their 30-year lifespan, they will help TABLE save more than $59,000 to then be put towards expanding food access to Orange County’s youth. White said even though low income communities are often the ones that benefit the most from the panels, those communities and the organizations serving them are usually the ones who cannot afford them.
Speaking to the small crowd, SolarEquity’s Vice President Aaron Applegate said the initiative reflects the club’s mission that solar power should be available to everyone.
“I vividly remember sending the first email to TABLE, just trying to judge their willingness to be a part of this project,” Applegate said. “And I was very much struck by their enthusiasm to be part of it. They responded within a few hours of me sending it and were extremely excited to be considered for the project.”
The solar panels will save TABLE more than $59,000 across three decades, equivalent to about 40,000 meals for Orange County’s youth. (Photo by Emma Cooke/Chapel Hill Media Group.)
In addition to advancing the club’s commitment to sustainability, the project is also a way to help reduce some of TABLE’s financial stress. The only food nonprofit exclusively focused on childhood hunger in Orange County, it has worked to provide kids with access to healthy food since 2008. The organization also offers nutrition education programs for families, allowing them to prepare and try new foods. But as a result of dwindling federal support for food assistance programs throughout 2025, several local food banks saw an increased demand for food without the necessary funds to keep up.
Marketing Director Suzanne Tormollen said every dollar TABLE saves as a result of the solar energy goes right back into expanding the number of people the nonprofit can serve.
“These types of projects and the community support will definitely help us continue to keep that waitlist down,” Tormollen said. “And now it’s great. A family can walk in our doors and we don’t have to say, ‘You have to wait six months.’ We can actually sign you up today. So that’s the best part.”
Particularly in the face of rising food costs, SolarEquity’s president said food nonprofits should not have to suffer from rising energy prices too. And by supporting the pantry, she said the impact “trickles down.” At the celebration, TABLE’s Executive Director Ashton Tippons expressed her gratitude for the fact.
“It’s more than just a meal,” she said. “It’s not something that, ‘Oh, we’re just getting meals every week and that’s it.’ It’s more than that. It allows kids the opportunity to figure out what foods they like and experience health and even to be able to succeed in other areas of their lives, school and relationships.”
Featured photo by Emma Cooke/Chapel Hill Media Group.
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Australian solar and thermal energy storage company RayGen says it has achieved a major international milestone with the commissioning of a 1 MW concentrated solar plant in Brazil.
Image: RayGen
RayGen has installed a 1 MW concentrated solar system in Brazil with local power company Axia Energia, formerly known as Eletrobras, investigating the technology’s potential to help power ‘AI factories.’
RayGen Chief Executive Officer Richard Payne said the new facility is now fully operational, showcasing the Melbourne-based company’s concentrated solar technology in one of the world’s fastest-evolving energy markets.
“This is a proud moment for RayGen and for Australian innovation and advanced manufacturing,” Payne said in a Linkedin post. “Our unique technology, which generates clean electricity and thermal energy, is being rolled out internationally.”
RayGen’s PV Ultra technology uses an array of mirrors, or heliostats, to concentrate sunlight onto PV modules located in a central receiver. The solar generation system is traditionally coupled with a thermal water-based energy storage system but the Brazilian project has so far been limited to the concentrated solar element.
The new 1 MW facility, deployed at Axia’s Petrolina site in Brazil’s northeast, features a standalone PV Ultra system, comprising a heliostat field, receiver tower, PV Ultra modules and plant control system.
Axia, responsible for 17% of the Brazil’s power generation capacity and 37% of the total transmission lines in the national interconnected system, said the Petrolina site will be used to test the technology under local conditions prior to their potential deployment at scale.
Axia Executive Vice President Technology and Innovation Juliano Dantas said pioneering RayGen’s technology opens up alternatives to combine renewable energy, energy storage, and inertia.
“It is about enabling solar generation driven by demand, with power quality, which is very much aligned with Axia Energy’s philosophy of serving the market,” he said, adding that the company “intends to further investigate how this system can help power AI factories.”
RayGen’s integrated solar electricity generation and long-duration energy storage technology has been on show at a test facility at Newbridge in Victoria since 2015. The company also operates a commercial facility at Carwarp in the state’s northwest. That facility, that came online in 2023, consists of 4 MW solar and 3 MW / 50 MWh storage, capable of delivering 17 hours of continuous power to the electricity grid.
The Carwarp facility is under an offtake agreement with AGL which has also acquired the rights for an approved utility-scale project planned for Yadnarie, on South Australia’s Eyre Peninsula.
The Yadnarie project would include 200 MW of solar generation and thermal storage of 115 MW capable of running at full capacity for just over 10 hours (1,200 MWh.
Updated April 1 to clarify the project does not include energy storage element.
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Saatvik Solar wins ₹638.26 cr G12R solar cell order constructionweekonline.in
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Thursday, April 2, 2026
A group of researchers from Japan and Germany may have conjured up a “dream technology” that could one day supercharge solar energy conversion to levels around 130 per cent, compared with the sub-30 per cent levels we see today.
In a paper recently published in the Journal of the American Chemical Society, a research team led by Kyushu University in Japan, in collaboration with Johannes Gutenberg University (JGU) Mainz in Germany, demonstrated a technique capable of generating and harvesting more solar energy than ever before.
The team is hoping to overcome what was believed to be an impossible-to-break “physical ceiling” to solar conversion, the impenetrability for laypeople of the research itself is unsurprising. The premise of the research, however, has to do with the way in which solar power is generated.
Planet Earth is bombarded by enormous amounts of energy from the Sun – a fact which clean energy proponents have long publicised. Solar energy has the potential, like wind energy, to provide virtually all of humanity’s energy needs.
Unfortunately, solar cells currently only capture a fraction of the amount of energy the Sun is pouring down on the planet.
The Kyushu University press release attempts to clarify the problem with an analogy, picturing a relay race among photons from sunlight that strike a semiconductor and pass their energy on to electrons, activating them and driving an electric current.
These photonic runners, however, “vary in ability”, and include lower-energy infrared photos that are unable to excite electrons, while higher-energy photos, like those in blue light, lose their excess as heat. “As a result, solar cells can use only about one-third of the sunlight,” a physical “ceiling” that is known as the Shockley–Queisser limit and one that has long challenged scientists.
In order to break through this limit, scientists have “two main strategies”, according to Yoichi Sasaki, associate professor at Kyushu University’s Faculty of Engineering. “One is to convert lower-energy infrared photons into higher energy visible photons. The other, what we explore here, is to use [singlet fission (SF)] to generate two excitons from a single exciton photon.”
Singlet fission is able to split a high-energy singlet exciton into two lower-energy spin-triplet excitons, a process which theoretically doubles the energy of the original photon.
This process has recently been at the forefront of solar research. Last year, singlet fission was described by one group of researchers from the University of NSW as providing a “scalable pathway to high efficiency silicon photovoltaics”.
But capturing singlet fission-born excitons has remained a challenge for researchers, even though some organic semiconductors like tetracene exhibit the process.
“The energy can be easily ‘stolen’ by a mechanism called Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) before multiplication occurs,” Sasaki explains. “We therefore needed an energy acceptor that selectively captures the multiplied triplet excitons after fission.”
It is at this point that the researchers from Kyushu University and JGU Mainz turned to metal complexes – molecules whose structures can be flexibly designed – and found that a molybdenum-based “spin-flip” emitter serves as an ideal harvester of excitons after fission.
In these flexibly designed molecules, an electron’s spin is flipped during the absorption or emission of near-infrared light, enabling the system to accept the triplet energy produced in singlet fission.
The researchers, by carefully tuning the energy levels, were able to suppress the wasteful FRET process and allow the multiplied excitons from singlet fission to be selectively extracted.
The end result, when pairing this molybdenum-based complex with tetracene-based materials in solution, allowed the team to harvest energy at quantum yields of around 130 per cent.
This means that approximately 1.3 molybdenum-based metal complexes were excited per photon absorbed, exceeding the conventional 100 per cent limit and indicating that the system generated and harvested more energy carriers than photons received.
The researchers hope that their work can help establish a new design strategy for exciton amplification, though they recognise their current experiments are only at the proof-of-concept stage. The goal is to bring the two types of materials together in the solid state and are aiming for efficient energy transfer and eventual integration into working solar cells.
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Joshua S. Hill is a Melbourne-based journalist who has been writing about climate change, clean technology, and electric vehicles for over 15 years. He has been reporting on electric vehicles and clean technologies for Renew Economy and The Driven since 2012. His preferred mode of transport is his feet.
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A map shows where a 2.25-megawatt solar farm is proposed to be built on farmland just northeast of Gibson City. An April 21 meeting on the project is scheduled. Courtesy of the City of Gibson
GIBSON CITY — The Gibson City Plan Commission will meet at 6 p.m. Tuesday, April 21, at City Hall, 101 E. 8th St., to consider a petition for a special use permit allowing for the construction and operation of a 2.25-megawatt solar farm on farmland just northeast of the city.
The petitioners are Larry and Cheryl Crews of Champaign, who own the agriculturally zoned land at Ford County Road 600 East and Illinois 54 in Drummer Township and are represented by Jason Grissom of IL Solar Ford Project1 LLC.
The firm’s San Francisco address, as listed in the Feb. 17 permit application, is also the headquarters of Fore- Front Power, where Grissom is employed as director of development. According to its website, ForeFront Power is a developer of commercial and industrial-scale solar energy and battery storage projects. It is a subsidiary of Mitsui & Co. Ltd. and operates under Mitsui’s North American investment arm, MyPower Corp.
A ForeFront Power-generated map of the proposed Ford County project was attached to the permit application, showing its proposed location on a 23.42-acre triangular parcel of land to the southeast of Illinois 54. The project would involve solar panels, solar racking, inverters and an access driveway, according to the application.
The city’s plan commission is expected to issue a recommendation for consideration by the city council on whether to approve the permit. The commission is chaired by Chase McCall and also includes Chris Cornish,
Donna Boundy, Terry Hutchcraft, David Crow, Mike Allen, Betsy Hammitt, Mike Perkins and Kevin Askew, according to the city’s website.
Because the city has zoning authority within 1 1/2 miles of its corporate limits, the project will not go before the Ford County Zoning Board of Appeals, said the county’s zoning administrator, Brandon Magers.
That will be a notable change from the county’s past practices.
Last December, for example, the county’s ZBA was preparing to hold a public hearing — only to end up canceling it — for special use permits requested for two proposed 5-megawatt commercial solar farms just north of Gibson City. The two projects, known as Goldenrod East LLC and Goldenrod West LLC, were to be built on former Railside Golf Course property under the project proposed by JAS Power LLC, a subsidiary of Greenvolt LLC.
Earlier, the county’s ZBA also considered a special-use permit for Arlington, Va.- based Earthrise Energy’s 135-megawatt solar farm currently being built 1 1/2 miles northwest of Gibson City in Drummer Township — the county’s first solar farm.
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