Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.
Advertisement
Light: Science & Applications volume 14, Article number: 214 (2025)
4088
5
54
Metrics details
Radio-photovoltaic cells (RPVCs) are able to offer high reliability and extended operational lifetimes, making them ideal for harsh-environment applications. However, the two-stage energy conversion process inherently limits energy conversion efficiency (ECE). This study presents a novel RPVC design based on a waveguide light concentration (WLC) scheme, employing multilayer-stacked GAGG:Ce scintillation waveguides alternately loaded with 90Sr radioisotope sources. Electron beam irradiation tests revealed highly efficient radioluminescence (RL) emission from the edge surfaces of GAGG:Ce waveguide at electron energies exceeding 60 keV. A RPVC prototype incorporating 1.43 Ci of ⁹⁰Sr achieved a maximum output power (Pmax) of 48.9 μW, with an unprecedented ECE of 2.96%—the highest reported value for radioisotope-powered RPVCs to date. Furthermore, a multi-module integrated RPVC prototype demonstrated a Pmax of 3.17 mW, with a short circuit current of 2.23 mA and an open circuit voltage of 2.14 V. Remarkably, the device exhibited only 13.8% RL performance degradation after a 50-year equivalent electron beam irradiation (total fluence: 5.625 × 1018 e/cm2), confirming exceptional radiation hardness. These findings demonstrate that the WLC-based RPVCs achieve both high power output and exceptional long-term stability, representing a substantial advancement for facilitating nuclear battery applications.
Nuclear batteries offer unique advantages for specialized applications in extreme environments, including space exploration, deep-sea operations, and polar/desert expeditions, garnering significant scientific and engineering interest1,2,3,4. Conventional power sources (e.g., chemical batteries, fuel cells, and photovoltaic cells) fail to meet the stringent operational demands of harsh environments, including long-term durability, maintenance-free operation, and continuous self-sustaining capabilities5,6,7,8. Nuclear batteries are categorized into various types based on their distinct energy conversion mechanisms9,10. Among them, radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs), which directly convert radioactive-decay heat into electricity, have been applied in space exploration since the 1970s11,12. However, their main characteristics (e.g., large size and weight, super-high cost, and limited availability of 238Pu source) make them difficult to use extensively in commercial and civilian fields. Radiovoltaic cells (RCs) can operate by directly converting decay energy into electrical energy and are composed of radiation sources and semiconductor transducers. However, their service lifetimes are constrained by radiation-induced degradation of semiconductor materials13,14. Radio-photovoltaic cells (RPVCs) are a typical example of indirect conversion of radiation energy to electrical energy1. In these cells, radioluminescence (RL) materials like scintillators and phosphors collect decay particles to produce luminescence, which is then further converted to electricity through a PV device15. Owing to the excellent radiation resistance of luminous materials, RPVCs offer significant advantages in mitigating radiation damage and protecting the sensitive PV cell from radiation16,17,18. However, the two-stage indirect conversion process faces a fundamental limitation: significantly lower energy conversion efficiency (ECE) compared to direct single-stage conversion. To improve the ECE of RPVCs, it is necessary to optimize individual component performance and coordinate their synergistic operation to maximize overall efficiency.
The PV cells serving as the photoelectric conversion component in RPVCs are required to match their spectral response with the radioluminescence (RL) and maintain a stable response to low-intensity light19,20,21. Recently, PV cells based on III-V compounds such as GaP, GaAs, AlGaAs, and AlGaInP have been increasingly used in RPVCs to enhance the conversion of light energy into electricity22. However, these PV cells have reached the limit for the efficient enhancement of RPVCs. Increasing research is focusing on developing novel luminous materials to improve RL performance, including nanosphere-coated phosphor layers23, inorganic perovskite quantum dots24,25, and scintillation crystals (e.g., GAGG:Ce, CsI: Tl, YAG:Ce)26,27,28. Furthermore, the coupling schemes of radiation sources and scintillators have been subjected to extensive investigation, including tritium gas-filled glass tubes coated with phosphor powder29, a mixture of 63NiCl2 solution and powdered phosphor30, and aerogel-phosphor composites saturated with tritium31. In these schemes, large and thin phosphors are required to enhance luminance and overcome the issue of light self-absorption within the phosphor materials. This necessitates an extended PV area to collect the emitted light flux, which is not helpful for the miniaturization and cost reduction of RPVCs. Waveguide light concentration (WLC) structure is considered promising scheme for addressing the above-mentioned issues32. Multilayer-stacked scintillation waveguides (SWs) with in-situ integrated radioisotopes between layers generate concentrated edge-emitted light, increasing photon flux density on PV cells to enhance photoelectric conversion efficiency. This design is not only beneficial for the miniaturization of RPVCs but also for the protection of PV cells from ionizing radiation. WLC-based structures require efficient scintillators with high transparency in their self-light. Although alkali halides (e.g., CsI, SrI2:Eu) and ZnS:Cu are efficient in RL performance, they also have shortcomings such as light self-absorption33 or high hygroscopicity34. Oxide scintillation crystals GAGG:Ce (Gd3Al2Ga3O12:Ce) with high photon yield, good radiation stability, and waveguide properties are ideal waveguiding materials for the PRVC applications35,36,37. However, so far, there have been few reports on their practical application in RPVCs.
The radiation source is another critical factor influencing the performance of RPVCs. Its parameters are determined by decay energy, specific activity, half-life, availability, and cost. Since the waveguide thickness must be comparable to the penetration depth of decay particles, the use of low-energy radiation sources (e.g., tritium, 63Ni, and 14C) requires micrometer-scale layers38. This will lead to some challenges in the fabrication and assembly of waveguide components. Therefore, high-energy radiation sources (e.g., 137Cs, 90Sr, and 241Am) are recommended for use, not only to ensure the operability of thick-layer waveguides but also to meet the commercial requirements for high power output39. However, the radiation hardness of SWs exposed to high-energy radioisotopes requires systematic evaluation.
In this work, a WLC-based RPVC was designed and fabricated using multilayer-stacked GAGG:Ce SWs interleaved with the 90Sr radiation sources. The structural parameters of the SWs were optimized using Monte Carlo (MC) simulations, and the RL performance and radiation stability of the scintillators were investigated using electron beam (EB) irradiation across a wide range of energies and beam fluxes. The 90Sr-powered RPVC prototype based on AlGaInP-based photovoltaics demonstrated a significant enhancement in both ECE and output power, validating the efficient WLC scheme.
Figure 1a shows a schematic diagram of a WLC-based RPVC, which consists of a multi-layer stacked SW module, a quartz container, and four AlGaInP-based PV cells. Square SW plates are alternately loaded with the radioisotope films, which are encased in a radiation-resistant quartz container to form an RL module. Four AlGaInP-based PV cells are attached to the four faces of the glass container, aligning with the emitting edges of the waveguide plates to collect the concentrated light, as illustrated in Fig. 1b. The PV cells are specifically designed to well-match their spectral response with the emission spectrum of the scintillator. The pure β-emitting 90Sr radioisotope was used as the radiation source due to its relatively low cost, long half-life (T1/2 = 28.9 years), high decay energy, and widespread availability. The high-energy particles penetrate the SWs to generate RL photons, which are guided along the transverse direction to the four edges of the waveguide plates and then concentrated into a slender beam of light. The thin radioisotope films are sandwiched between two scintillation plates, which not only reduce the self-absorption of β particles within the radiation source but also allow for the complete absorption of decay particles by the scintillators from all angles. The GAGG:Ce crystal (Gd3Al2Ga3O12:Ce) was used for the fabrication of SW owing to its high scintillation yield of 55,000 ph/MeV and high refractive index (n = 1.96). The doping of Ce3+ ions allow its excited energy level of 4 f → 5 d to be lower than the wide bandgap of GAGG:Ce, thereby resulting in the generation of high-yield RL photons and a high transmittance to its own emission photons. With its high refractive index, the GAGG:Ce scintillator exhibits near-total internal reflection at its polished surfaces, making it an ideal candidate for low-loss waveguide applications.
a Integrated component photos of the WLC-based RPVC and b schematic 3-D structural diagram of the RL module based on multilayer-stacked GAGG:Ce SWs interleaved with 90Sr films. Inset is a schematic illustration of RL generation and transmission in the Ce3+-doped scintillators
The transmittance and emission spectra of GAGG:Ce scintillators are shown in Fig. 2a. Two absorption bands are observed with peaks at 440 nm (2.65 eV) and 340 nm (3.65 eV), corresponding to the spin-and-parity-allowed electronic transitions of 4 f → 5d1 and 4 f → 5d2 of Ce3+, respectively. The transmittance spectra show a transmittance of 80% for wavelengths greater than 510 nm, covering the main portion of the photoluminescence (PL) spectrum of the GAGG:Ce scintillator in the range of 450 nm to 650 nm. The thickness variation of SWs has a slight effect on transmittance, which can be negligible.
a Transmittance and PL spectra of GAGG:Ce scintillator. b Edge-to-face RL intensity ratios. c 85Kr radiation platform and GAGG:Ce SW under 85Kr irradiation. d Comparative RL intensity profiles at polished surfaces and roughness edges for 0.5 mm, 1 mm, 2 mm thick GAGG:Ce SWs
In the WLC structure, both main faces of the SWs were polished to enhance the total internal reflection, and the four edges were roughened to enhance edge emission (Supplementary Fig. S1). It is demonstrated that a rough surface can significantly enhance the light emission in comparison with the polished and antireflective surfaces, as shown in Supplementary Table S1. To compare the light emission intensity from the main face and edge of GAGG:Ce waveguides with different thicknesses (e.g., 0.5 mm, 1 mm, and 2 mm), the RL from both surfaces was measured using a 85Kr radiation platform (Fig. 2c), and their edge-to-face luminance intensity ratios are shown in Fig. 2b. According to the β-energy spectrum data of 85Kr (Supplementary Table S2), the maximum penetration depth of β-particles emitted from the 85Kr in the GAGG:Ce scintillator was estimated to be 300 μm based on MC simulations (MCNP5, Monte Carlo N Particle Transport Code), as shown in Supplementary Fig. S2. Since the thickness of the waveguides is significantly greater than the penetration depth of the β-particles, the RL measured from the main faces of waveguides with varying thicknesses remains nearly the same, with an average of 0.528 ± 0.02 cd/m2. In contrast, the RL of edge emissions is significantly higher than those of face emissions. As shown in Fig. 2c, the maximum luminance of edge emission reaches 3.879 cd/m² in a 0.5 mm thick waveguide, making a maximum edge-to-face luminance ratio of 7.18, in comparison with ratios of 5.45 for a 1 mm one and 3.92 for a 2 mm one, respectively. These results directly verify the light-concentration effect in SWs. Figure 2d exhibits the comparative RL intensity profiles at polished surfaces and roughness edges for the GAGG:Ce SWs with varying thicknesses. A reduction in edge emission luminance was observed with increasing waveguide thickness. This can be explained by the fact that thick waveguides suffer from luminance dispersion across larger edge areas, whereas thin waveguides can enhance luminance intensity through photon spatial compression. While thinner waveguides exhibit higher internal reflection losses, the increased waveguide thickness enhances total luminous intensity by expanding the effective edge emission area. This suggests that a thicker waveguide is capable of achieving higher RL efficiency under identical excitation conditions. Considering the cost-efficiency requirement for practical applications, the optimum thickness of the waveguide was determined to be 2 mm.
EB irradiation was used to simulate the β emission of radiation sources, allowing for precise control of the electron energy (EE) and electron current (EC) for flexible and targeted experimental research. Three different EB generators were used to generate EBs with different EE levels (Fig. 3a), corresponding to a low-energy EB with an EE range from 5.7 keV to 18 keV, a medium-energy EB with an EE range from 40 keV to 60 keV, and a high-energy EB with an EE range from 50 keV to 170 keV, respectively. A light power meter was positioned adjacent to the emission edge of the SW within the vacuum chamber to continuously in-situ monitor the RL power. Figure 3a shows the effects of low- and middle-energy EBs with various ECs on the RL of edge emission in the 2-mm-thick GAGG:Ce SW, respectively. It can be observed that the RL power increases with an increase in the EE and EC, and the nonlinear increase in light power implies that the RE can be increased by enhancing the incident EE. Low-energy electrons deposit energy predominantly near the surface of scintillators, resulting in a localized photon emission zone. With the increase in EE, the spatial distribution of luminescent zone expands correspondingly, leading to enhanced photon emission efficiency in GAGG:Ce scintillators. Furthermore, the influence of the EC on RL power exhibits a linear increase trend, which can be further verified by Fig. 3b. With the use of a high-energy EB, the increases in RL power are linearly dependent on the increase in both the EE and EC, as shown in Fig. 3c. This means that the RL efficiency remains relatively stable for high-energy EB radiation. This could be attributed to the multiple excitation effect, which generates amounts of secondary electrons through the continuous collision of high-energy electrons with the atomic structure of the scintillator. These secondary electrons further excite more 5d1 → 4 f transitions of Ce3+ in the scintillator, thereby resulting in enhanced light-emission and a stable RL efficiency. The three EB devices, along with their corresponding test images, are depicted in Fig. 3d.
a Photos of EB generators with different EE levels. b Dependences of RL powers on the low- and medium-energy EB with various ECs. c Dependences of RL powers on the ECs in the EEs of 5.7 keV and 60 keV. d Dependences of RL powers on the high-energy EB with various ECs and EEs. e EE-dependent EDR and BER in GAGG:Ce. f Depth-dependent EDD in GAGG:Ce under 90Sr/90Y radiation
MCNP simulations were conducted to determine the effective energy deposition of electrons in the GAGG:Ce scintillator and the energy backscattering loss of incident electrons. As shown in Fig. 3e, with an increase in the incident EE, the backscattering electron rate (BER) decreases, thus leading to an increase in the energy deposition rate (EDR). Low-energy electrons can increase the BER by 10% compared to high-energy electrons. This suggests that high-energy β-emitting sources are more preferable for the GAGG:Ce scintillator than low-energy ones. In this work, the 90Sr radioisotope was used as the radiation source owing to its high average energy of 195.8 keV. With β-decay, 90Sr will decay into 90Y, which subsequently undergoes β-decay to produce stable 90Zr. Owing to the much shorter half-life of 90Y (64 h) compared to 90Sr, 90Sr and 90Y coexist with each 90Sr β-decay40. Therefore, the β-particles of 90Sr/90Y have an average energy of ∼ 0.3 MeV and a maximum energy of ∼2.2 MeV. Additionally, 90Y will emit a gamma (γ) ray when undergoing β-decay. Figure 3f shows the depth-dependent energy deposition density (EDD) in GAGG:Ce under 90Sr/90Y irradiation, which was calculated through MCNP simulation. A total of 99% of the β-decay energy is deposited within a depth of 960 μm, and the remaining energy can be deposited completely within a 2 mm depth. The EDD for both 90Sr and 90Y are also presented in the insets of Fig. 3f, corresponding to their respective energy spectra (Supplementary Fig. S3 and Tables S3, S4). It can be observed that the β-decay energy of 90Y is crucial for determining the optimum depth of the SW.
The WLC-based RPVC prototype was assembled using a remotely operated manipulator in a closed glove box for radiation isolation and protection. The GAGG:Ce scintillation crystal was cut into 25 mm × 25 mm × 2 mm plates. A gel-based 90SrNO3 solution was coated on the surface of the waveguide plates. After heating and drying, a radioisotope film was adhered to the surface of each waveguide plate (Fig. 4a). Figure 4b shows an RL module with bright RL in the middle region of the multilayer-stacked GAGG:Ce waveguides. The RL was measured up to 0.6225 cd/m2, corresponding to a 90Sr activity of 43.5 mCi in two-layers of 90Sr films. Figure 4c demonstrates an RL module interleaved with 90Sr films in a ten-layer stacked SW, with a total activity of 1.43 Ci. The average RL across the entire emission surface reached 19.86 cd/m2. Figure 4d shows the RL intensity profile across the entire emission surface. The central region of the module exhibits higher luminance than the surrounding region, with the maximum luminance reaching ∼34 cd/m2. It is suggested that there is a small portion of light that leaks out of the waveguides and enters into the adjacent waveguides, thereby resulting in a overlay enhancement of emission light in the central region. Additionally, the radiation sources were not fully covered on the entire surface of the waveguides, as shown in Fig. 4a, which is responsible for the relatively weak light emission in the surrounding region. The external quantum efficiency (EQE) curve of the AlGaInP-based PV cells was also measured, as shown in Fig. 4e. It can be observed that the EQE curve well-matches the PL spectrum of the GAGG:Ce scintillator, indicating a successful design and fabrication of AlGaInP-based PV cells for efficient conversion of light energy to electricity. Figure 4f shows the current-voltage (I-V) and power-voltage (P-V) curves of the WLC-based RPVC prototype. The short-circuit current (Isc) and open-circuit voltage (Voc) were measured to be 60.3 μA and 1.16 V, respectively, and the maximum output power (Pmax) reached 48.9 μW. The overall ECE was calculated to be 2.96% (Calculation method in Supplementary Information), and it is a record ECE value among the reported RPVCs (Supplementary Table S5). A multi-module integrated RPVC prototype was assembled by integrating and cascading connection of 64 modules, which were encapsulated within a plumbum container during experiments, ensuring no leakage of γ-ray. The I-V and P-V curves were measured as shown in Fig. 4g. The Pmax reached 3.17 mW with an Isc of 2.23 mA and a Voc of 2.14 V.
a Top-view photo of gel-based 90Sr(NO3)2 solution adhered to the surface of SW. b Photo of RL module loaded with two-layer 90Sr film. c Photo of RL module loaded with multilayer 90Sr film. d RL intensity profile of RL module. e EQE curve of AlGaInP-based PV cells and PL spectrum of GAGG:Ce scintillator. I-V and P-V curves for RPVC prototypes with (f) single module and (g) 64 modules
Owing to the direct contact with the 90Sr radioisotope, the GAGG:Ce SWs are continuously exposed to high-energy β- and γ-irradiations over prolonged periods. These decay energies excite the scintillator while potentially causing radiation damage to it. It is necessary to investigate the radiation tolerance of GAGG:Ce SWs under β- and γ-irradiations. An EB (simulated β-radiation source) source and a 60Co γ-irradiation source were used to irradiate GAGG:Ce SWs, respectively. For the γ-irradiation tests, two different dose rates of 400 Gy/h and 2000 Gy/h were used by controlling the irradiation duration to deliver a total dose of 2.89 × 105 Gy, respectively. For the EB–irradiation tests, two 60 keV electron fluxes of 6.25 × 1014 e/cm2·s and 3.125 × 1015 e/cm2·s were applied for 30 minutes, resulting in total fluences of 1.125×1018 e/cm2 and 5.625 × 1018 e/cm2, respectively. These fluences correspond to approximately the same amount of β emission from a radiation source of 100 mCi/cm2 over periods of 10 and 50 years, respectively. The RL performance and surface morphology of the GAGG:Ce SWs were analyzed before and after irradiation, as shown in Fig. 5. It was found that the intensities of the PL spectra decreased by 5% and 11% after γ-irradiations with 400 Gy/h and 2000 Gy/h, respectively, when compared with those before γ-irradiation (Fig. 5a). An increased dose rate results in proportionally enhanced degradation in RL performance at identical total irradiation doses. In contrast, EB-irradiation has a more significant impact on the intensity of PL spectra than γ-irradiation. As shown in Fig. 5b, EB-irradiations with fluences of 1.125 × 1018 e/cm2 and 5.625 × 1018 e/cm2 lead to reductions of 23% and 61% in the PL intensity, respectively. Distinctive differentiation features were prominently observed on the GAGG:Ce surface, as depicted in the inset of Fig. 5b, which are primarily responsible for the notable decrease in the PL spectra intensity. Measurements of the absorption spectra were used to provide insight into the effects of EB- and γ-irradiations on the optical properties. Figure 5c shows the bandgap values of GAGG:Ce scintillators before and after EB- and γ-irradiations, calculated from their main optical absorption edges. In comparison with the original bandgap value of 2.584 eV, the bandgap values after EB- and γ-irradiations were changed to 2.520 eV and 2.571 eV, respectively, suggesting that EB-irradiation has a greater impact on the bandgap than γ-irradiation.
a PL spectra of GAGG:Ce scintillators before and after γ-radiations with 400 Gy/h and 2000 Gy/h. b PL spectra of GAGG:Ce SWs before and after EB-irradiations with 1.125 × 1018 e/cm2 and 5.625 × 1018 e/cm2. c Bandgap estimations of GAGG:Ce scintillators before and after EB- and γ-irradiations. d Effects of EB- and γ-irradiations on RL performance. e SEM images of GAGG:Ce surfaces before and after EB- and γ-irradiations
Figure 5d shows the effects of EB- and γ-irradiations on RL edge-emission. With the same irradiation time, a higher electron flux will lead to greater degradation in both luminance and RL power. After EB-irradiation with a fluence of 5.625 × 1018 e/cm2, the maximum degradations in luminance and RL power reached 10.8% and 13.8%, respectively. In contrast, γ-irradiation with a dose rate of 2000 Gy/h exerts less impact on luminance and RL power than EB-irradiation, resulting in only 2.3% and 3.3% degradation, respectively. By observing SEM images of GAGG:Ce surfaces before and after EB- and γ-irradiations (see Fig. 5e), EB-irradiation induces substantial surface damage through the formation of microtrenches induced by electron etching. In contrast, the surface exposed to γ-irradiation is relatively smooth owing to the high penetrating ability of γ-rays. The formation of microtrenches increases surface roughness in waveguide surfaces, thereby leading to enhanced light leakage through these surfaces and reducing the edge emission efficiency.
In summary, a WLC-based RPVC was designed and fabricated using multilayer-stacked GAGG:Ce SWs interleaved with the 90Sr radiation sources, which demonstrated efficient radiation-to-electrical energy conversion and excellent radiation stability. Through the Monte Carlo simulation to optimize WLC structure, the light collection efficiency of RL model was enhanced, and thus the total ECE of RPVC was improved. The 2-mm-thick GAGG:Ce SW is well-suited for the radiation penetration depth of high-energy electrons emitted from 90Sr. The enhanced RL emission from the waveguide edges was verified using an β-irradiation from 85Kr source, showing an enhancement of 2.85 times in comparison with the RL emission from the main faces of SW. EB-irradiation tests revealed highly efficient RL emission from the waveguide edge at electron energies exceeding 60 keV. Remarkably, the GAGG:Ce SWs exhibited only 13.8% RL degradation after a 50-year equivalent EB-irradiation (total fluence of 5.625 × 10¹⁸ e/cm²), demonstrating exceptional radiation hardness. The AlGaInP-based PV cells used in the devices were well-matched to the GAGG:Ce emission spectrum. A WLC-based RPVC prototype loaded with 1.43 Ci of 90Sr achieved a Pmax of 48.9 μW, with an ECE of 2.96%—the highest reported value for radioisotope-powered RPVCs. A 64-module prototype demonstrated a Pmax of 3.17 mW with Isc = 2.23 mA and Voc = 2.14 V. Although large-scale production of RPVCs remains constrained by both challenges, namely mass production and cost reduction of 90Sr radioisotope, the current research results demonstrate a substantial advancement for facilitating nuclear battery applications.
GAGG:Ce scintillators were available from the 26th Institute of China Electronics Technology Group Corporation (The density is 6.63 g/cm3); The 90Sr(NO3)2 solution and 85Kr gas were provided by the China Institute of Atomic Energy; AlGaInP-based PV cells was provided by Shanghai Institute of Space Power-Sources; Electron emitters with various electron energy ranges (e.g., 5.7–18 keV, 40–60 keV, and 50–170 keV) were used as simulated radiation sources, which were obtained from the China Institute of Atomic Energy, the Institute of Electrical Engineering (Chinese Academy of Sciences), and Harbin Institute of Technology, respectively.
The transmittance and absorbance of the scintillators were measured using a UV/Vis/NIR spectrophotometer (Varian, Cary-5000). A light power meter (Ophir, PD300-UV) and an imaging colorimeter (Radiant Vision Systems, ProMetric I) were used to measure the luminescence performance of GAGG:Ce SWs. The emission spectrum of the scintillators was measured using a fluorescence spectrophotometer (HITACHI, F-7000). The electrical performance of the RPVCs was characterized using a digital source meter (Keithley, 2636). The morphological characteristics and elemental analysis were performed using scanning electron microscopy (Zeiss, SUPRA55 SAPPHIRE). The microscopic surface roughness was measured using an atomic force microscope (Cypher S, Asylum Research). The morphology of the frosted surfaces was analyzed using a profile-analyzing laser microscope (VK-X250K, Keyence) and a step profiler (Dektak-XT, Bruker).
The data supporting this study’s findings are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Li, K. et al. Micronuclear battery based on a coalescent energy transducer. Nature 633, 811–815, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07933-9 (2024).
Article Google Scholar
Kumar, S. Atomic batteries: energy from radioactivity. J. Nucl. Energy Sci. Power Gener. Technol. 5, 1, https://doi.org/10.4172/2325-9809.1000144 (2016).
Article Google Scholar
Prelas, M. A. et al. A review of nuclear batteries. Prog. Nucl. Energy 75, 117–148, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pnucene.2014.04.007 (2014).
Article Google Scholar
Olsen, L. C., Cabauy, P. & Elkind, B. J. Betavoltaic power sources. Phys. Today 65, 35–38, https://doi.org/10.1063/PT.3.1820 (2012).
Article Google Scholar
Kim, H. S. et al. Multiple-year battery based on highly efficient and stable dual-site radioactive isotope dye-sensitized betavoltaic cell. J. Power Sources 606, 234427, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2024.234427 (2024).
Article Google Scholar
Terranova, M. L. Nuclear batteries: current context and near-term expectations. Int. J. Energy Res. 46, 19368–19393, https://doi.org/10.1002/er.8539 (2022).
Article Google Scholar
Iwan, A., Pellowski, W. & Bogdanowicz, K. A. Conversion of radiophotoluminescence irradiation into electricity in photovoltaic cells. A review of theoretical considerations and practical solutions. Energies 14, 6186, https://doi.org/10.3390/en14196186 (2021).
Article Google Scholar
Lange, R. G. & Carroll, W. P. Review of recent advances of radioisotope power systems. Energy Convers. Manag. 49, 393–401, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2007.10.028 (2008).
Article Google Scholar
Naseem, M. B. et al. Betavoltaic nuclear battery: a review of recent progress and challenges as an alternative energy source. J. Phys. Chem. C. 127, 7565–7579, https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jpcc.3c00684 (2023).
Article Google Scholar
Spencer, M. G. & Alam, T. High power direct energy conversion by nuclear batteries. Appl. Phys. Rev. 6, 031305, https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5123163 (2019).
Article Google Scholar
Rowe, D. M. Applications of nuclear-powered thermoelectric generators in space. Appl. Energy 40, 241–271, https://doi.org/10.1016/0306-2619(91)90020-X (1991).
Article Google Scholar
O’Brien, R. C. et al. Safe radioisotope thermoelectric generators and heat sources for space applications. J. Nucl. Mater. 377, 506–521, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnucmat.2008.04.009 (2008).
Article Google Scholar
Eiting, C. J. et al. Demonstration of a radiation resistant, high efficiency SiC betavoltaic. Appl. Phys. Lett. 88, 064101, https://doi.org/10.1063/1.2172411 (2006).
Article Google Scholar
Jiang, T. X. et al. Research on output power of radio-voltaic nuclear battery. 2020 Asia Energy and Electrical Engineering Symposium. 763–766, (IEEE, 2020). https://doi.org/10.1109/AEEES48850.2020.9121369 (2020).
Jiang, T. X. et al. 63Ni-based radioluminescent isotope cells with enhanced photon transport interfaces. J. Sci.: Adv. Mater. Devices 8, 100611, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsamd.2023.100611 (2023).
Article Google Scholar
Sychov, M. et al. Alpha indirect conversion radioisotope power source. Appl. Radiat. Isotopes 66, 173–177, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apradiso.2007.09.004 (2008).
Article Google Scholar
Sharma, A. et al. Novel use of semiconductive conjugated polymer with optimized scintillator for betavoltaic applications. ASME 2015 International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition. 50739, (ASME, 2015). https://doi.org/10.1115/IMECE2015-50739 (2015).
Li, X. M. et al. Mn2+ induced significant improvement and robust stability of radioluminescence in Cs3Cu2I5 for high-performance nuclear battery. Nat. Commun. 12, 3879, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-24185-7 (2021).
Article Google Scholar
Jiang, T. X. et al. In-depth analysis of the internal energy conversion of nuclear batteries and radiation degradation of key materials. Energy Technol. 8, 2000667, https://doi.org/10.1002/ente.202000667 (2020).
Article Google Scholar
Wu, Y. S. et al. Research on X-ray-based energy conversion technology and assessment of application prospect. Sustain. Energy Technol. Assess. 60, 103552, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seta.2023.103552 (2023).
Article Google Scholar
Russo, J., Ray, W. I. I. & Litz, M. S. Low light illumination study on commercially available homojunction photovoltaic cells. Appl. Energy 191, 10–21, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.01.029 (2017).
Article Google Scholar
Zhao, C. et al. Tenfold efficiency improvement of x-ray radioluminescent batteries basing on GAGG: Ce single crystal scintillators. Appl. Phys. Lett. 119, 223901, https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0073048 (2021).
Article Google Scholar
He, Y. H. et al. Enhanced radioluminescence and improved radioluminescent nuclear battery output performance more than 50% with SiO2 nanosphere coating. J. Lumin. 255, 119600, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jlumin.2022.119600 (2023).
Article Google Scholar
Yang, D. D. et al. Armor-like passivated CsPbBr3 quantum dots: boosted stability with hand-in-hand ligands and enhanced performance of nuclear batteries. J. Mater. Chem. A 9, 8772–8781, https://doi.org/10.1039/d0ta12365j (2021).
Article Google Scholar
Gao, R. L. et al. High efficiency formamidinium-cesium perovskite-based radio-photovoltaic cells. Energy Environ. Mater. 7, e12513, https://doi.org/10.1002/eem2.12513 (2024).
Article Google Scholar
Karpyuk, P. et al. The saturation of the response to an electron beam of Ce-and Tb-doped GYAGG phosphors for indirect β-voltaics. Appl. Sci. 13, 3323, https://doi.org/10.3390/app13053323 (2023).
Article Google Scholar
Korzhik, M. et al. Towards effective indirect radioisotope energy converters with bright and radiation hard scintillators of (Gd,Y)3Al2Ga3O12 family. Nucl. Eng. Technol. 54, 2579–2585, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.net.2022.02.007 (2022).
Article Google Scholar
Zhao, C. et al. X-ray radioluminescent battery with near milliwatt output power using CsI: Tl single crystal scintillator. Appl. Phys. Lett. 121, 123906, https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0109011 (2022).
Article Google Scholar
Walton, R. et al. Radioisotopic battery and capacitor system for powering wireless sensor networks. Sens. Actuators A Phys. 203, 405–412, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sna.2013.09.010 (2013).
Article Google Scholar
Russo, J. et al. A radioluminescent nuclear battery using volumetric configuration: 63Ni solution/ZnS: Cu, Al/InGaP. Appl. Radiat. Isotopes 130, 66–74, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apradiso.2017.09.018 (2017).
Article Google Scholar
Phatangare, A. B. et al. Novel nuclear batteries based on radioluminescence. Energy Technol. 10, 2200285, https://doi.org/10.1002/ente.202200285 (2022).
Article Google Scholar
Bower, K. E. et al. Polymers, phosphors, and voltaics for radioisotope microbatteries. (CRC Press, 2002).
Jiang, T. X. et al. Comparison and study of the preparation methods for phosphor layer in nuclear battery. Int. J. Energy Res. 45, 11712–11720, https://doi.org/10.1002/er.5526 (2021).
Article Google Scholar
Xie, Y. G. et al. Influence of air exposure on CsI photocathodes. Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. Sect. A Accel. Spectrometers Detect. Assoc. Equip. 689, 79–86, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nima.2012.06.023 (2012).
Article Google Scholar
Kamada, K. et al. 2 inch diameter single crystal growth and scintillation properties of Ce: Gd3Al2Ga3O12. J. Cryst. Growth 352, 88–90, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrysgro.2011.11.085 (2012).
Article Google Scholar
Yoneyama, M. et al. Evaluation of GAGG: Ce scintillators for future space applications. J. Instrum. 13, P02023, https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-0221/13/02/P02023 (2018).
Article Google Scholar
Jarrell, J. T. et al. Radiation hardness of polycrystalline ceramic scintillators for radioisotope batteries. Hard X-Ray, Gamma-Ray, and Neutron Detector Physics XXIV. (SPIE, 2022) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2635787 (2022).
Moayedi, H. et al. Optimization of beta radioluminescent batteries with different radioisotopes: a theoretical study. Nucl. Sci. Eng. 195, 614–625, https://doi.org/10.1080/00295639.2020.1848199 (2021).
Article Google Scholar
Lei, Y. S. et al. Demonstration and aging test of a radiation resistant strontium-90 betavoltaic mechanism. Appl. Phys. Lett. 116, 153901, https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5140780 (2020).
Article Google Scholar
Dixon, J. et al. Evaluation of a silicon 90Sr betavoltaic power source. Sci. Rep. 6, 38182, https://doi.org/10.1038/srep38182 (2016).
Article Google Scholar
Download references
This work was supported by the National Key Research and Development Program of China (No. 2022YFB1903200) and the Electronic Components Project of China (No.2009ZYHN0003).
These authors contributed equally: Tongxin Jiang, Sijie Li
Pen-Tung Sah Institute of Micro-Nano Science and Technology, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
Tongxin Jiang, Wenlong Yao & Haisheng San
China Institute of Atomic Energy, Beijing, China
Sijie Li, Lu Han, Lei Zhang, Xue Li, Lifeng Zhang, Xian Tang & Xin Li
PubMed Google Scholar
PubMed Google Scholar
PubMed Google Scholar
PubMed Google Scholar
PubMed Google Scholar
PubMed Google Scholar
PubMed Google Scholar
PubMed Google Scholar
PubMed Google Scholar
PubMed Google Scholar
Correspondence to Xue Li, Xin Li or Haisheng San.
The authors declare no competing interests.
Supplementary Information for High-efficiency <sup>90</sup>Sr radio-photovoltaic cells based on waveguide light concentration structure
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.
Reprints and permissions
Jiang, T., Li, S., Yao, W. et al. High-efficiency 90Sr radio-photovoltaic cells based on waveguide light concentration structure. Light Sci Appl 14, 214 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41377-025-01875-1
Download citation
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Version of record:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41377-025-01875-1
Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:
Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.
Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative
Advertisement
Light: Science & Applications (Light Sci Appl)
ISSN 2047-7538 (online)
© 2025 Springer Nature Limited
