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Nature Energy (2026)
Perovskite solar modules (PSMs) have emerged as a promising photovoltaic technology due to their high efficiency, low fabrication cost and compatibility with lightweight and flexible applications. However, ensuring long-term reliable performance under real-world conditions remains a critical barrier to commercialization. PSMs degrade through mechanisms that differ substantially from those affecting established technologies such as silicon, particularly under environmental stressors like ultraviolet light, oxygen, temperature cycling and reverse bias. Here we provide an analysis of the degradation pathways specific to perovskite modules and discuss why standard accelerated tests often fail to predict outdoor performance. We conceptualize challenges across material, device and module levels and evaluate strategies to mitigate ion migration, interfacial breakdown and encapsulation failure. By highlighting the need for realistic testing protocols and durable materials, we propose a framework highlighting key challenges, technological pathways and the trade-offs required to extend perovskite module lifetimes towards long-term operation, aiming to guide the development of PSMs capable of a 30-year operational lifetime.
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This work is supported in part by the Office of Naval Research (award no. N6833522C0122) and the UNC Research Opportunity Initiative. L.A.C. acknowledges funding from the European Union’s Framework Programme for Research and Innovation Horizon Europe (2021–2027) under Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant agreement no. 101068387 ‘EFESO’. This work was authored in part by the National Laboratory of the Rockies for the US Department of Energy (DOE), operated under contract no. DE-AC36-08GO28308. Funding was provided in part by the ‘Perovskite Enabled Tandems’ project funded by the US DOE Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy EERE and Solar Energy Technologies Office (award #52776). The work at CubicPV was supported by the US DOE under awards nos. DE-EE0011421 and DE-EE0009529. The views expressed in this Review do not necessarily represent the views of the DOE or the US Government. The US Government retains and the publisher, by accepting the Article for publication, acknowledges that the US Government retains a nonexclusive, paid-up, irrevocable, worldwide license to publish or reproduce the published form of this work, or allow others to do so, for US Government purposes.
Department of Applied Physical Sciences, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
Luigi A. Castriotta, Mengru Wang, Xiaoqiang Shi & Jinsong Huang
Centre for Hybrid and Organic Solar Energy (CHOSE), Department of Electronic Engineering, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy
Luigi A. Castriotta
CubicPV Inc., Bedford, MA, USA
Benjia Dak Dou
National Laboratory of the Rockies, Golden, CO, USA
Laura T. Schelhas
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Institute, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, USA
Laura T. Schelhas
Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
Jinsong Huang
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L.A.C., M.W., X.S., B.D.D., L.T.S. and J.H. contributed equally to this Review.
Correspondence to Jinsong Huang.
J.H. is the founder of Perotech. D.B.D. is the director of research and development at CubicPV Inc. The remaining authors declare no competing interests.
Nature Energy thanks Marc Koentges and Jianfeng Lu and the other, anonymous, reviewer(s) for their contribution to the peer review of this work.
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Castriotta, L.A., Wang, M., Shi, X. et al. Challenges, technological pathways and trade-offs of perovskite solar modules for long-term operation. Nat Energy (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41560-026-01969-z
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