Ready to get up to 3 free quotes? Get up to 3 free quotes for solar, batteries, EV chargers or hot water heat pumps GET MY QUOTESLast Updated: 3rd Jun 2026 Installations of solar systems from 6 to 6.66 kilowatts (kW) are common in Australia, with 6.6 kW being very popular. This is because, for a long time, it was a good combination of size and affordability. But these days, we recommend most households install something bigger, provided there’s room on the roof. The cost of a 6.6 kW system using quality components that are professionally installed will generally range between $5,500 – $8,000. The graph below details the average price 1407 people have reported paying for their 6.6 kW solar and battery system over the last year. This price range takes into account the solar rebate as well as the federal battery rebate. The number of panels required for a 6 to 6.6 kW solar system depends on their size. Large panels can be over 730 Watts (W) each, so only 9 of them would be needed for a 6.6 kW system. But panels used on homes are generally smaller and typically range from 440-490W. If 470W panels are used, 14 will be required for a 6.6 kW system. Based on panels measuring around 1.8 metres x 1.1 metres, around 28 square metres of suitable roof space will be required for a 6.6 kW solar power system. Here’s a general idea of how much space 6.6 kW occupies, based on 470 Watt panels. Factors such as installation location, solar panel orientation and component quality come into play, but generally a 6.6 kW PV system with panels facing more or less north, should generate around 26 kilowatt-hours of electricity a day, which is more than the average Australian household uses daily. Don’t forget you’ll be receiving feed-in tariff payments for your surplus electricity. Also, it’s large enough to normally eliminate grid electricity consumption on sunny days from before midmorning to beyond midafternoon for typical households. Bear in mind that self-consumption is key to getting the most from a system of this size. To increase self-consumption, an appropriately sized home battery can help. What’s the best-sized battery for your home will depend on individual circumstances. But a very basic rule of thumb is: have enough battery capacity to supply your typical overnight consumption, plus at least a few kilowatt-hours (kWh) more. But, for a typical household, a 6.6 kW or smaller solar system often won’t produce enough energy in winter or during periods of bad weather to fully charge a home battery. For this reason, it normally makes sense to use an electricity plan with periods of either cheap or free daytime electricity, and take advantage of them to top up the battery from the grid. For a more accurate way to size a battery using your actual electricity usage, read our guide to sizing a home battery. You should see a simple payback period of around 5-6 years assuming a good installation, you’ve paid a reasonable price and have a significant level solar energy self-consumption. The payback period increases a bit if you add a home battery to the system. However, you can use our solar calculator to get a better sense of the returns of a solar (and battery) system. You could also be cash flow positive from the get-go if you’re able to secure cheap solar finance, and not have to pay anything (or very little) up-front. While 6 kW system installations have grown in popularity, savvy Australians are installing 6.6 kW solar systems – or even larger. Let me clarify – if your house is on a single-phase electricity supply (and most Australian homes are), then you should get at least a 5kW inverter and 6.6 kW of solar panels. This may seem like an odd figure and one I’ve pulled out of a hat. Basically, a 6.6 kW configuration gives you great bang for buck in terms of kilowatts for your dollars. And if you’re getting a decent feed-in tariff, a 6.6 kW solar system will help give you a great return on your investment. Installing solar panel capacity greater than inverter capacity is called “oversizing”. It’s quite common these days, totally safe, won’t harm the inverter and I highly recommend it. As Australia’s solar subsidy (still often called the “solar rebate“) is based on panel capacity rather than inverter size, this means you’ll extract the best level of incentive possible. Aside from a 5kW inverter possibly being cheaper than 6 kW, solar panels rarely produce as much power as their rated capacity for a number of reasons; a major one being temperature. This is reflected by a solar panel’s temperature coefficient. Most solar panels lose around 10% of their rated power on a 25°C day, and more if it is hotter – and Australia is no stranger to warm days.
Other factors affecting output include dirt and grime on the panels and wiring losses. So, by using a 5kW inverter with 6 kW (or 6.6 kW) of solar panels, you’ll actually be ensuring the inverter is working at its designed performance level for more of the time. Another very important reason for using a 5kW inverter is that it is the maximum capacity some Network Service Providers allow for connection to the grid. Aside from rooftop space limitations in some cases, installation guidelines only allow for a maximum 133% oversize of panel capacity vs inverter capacity – and 5kW x 133% = 6.65kW. While you may not be able to get a system exactly 6.65kW, aim for as close to it as possible – but not a single watt over in order to remain within the approved oversizing limit. Even with the subsidy, solar panels are a significant investment and as with any trade, there are good installers and not-so-good. If you want to go solar and are looking for a price for a 6 kW (or 6.6 kW) system, you’re definitely in the right place. Use our free service to get up to 3 solar quotes from installers servicing your area that I’ve hand-picked and trust to prepare a quote on a system that best suits your needs and circumstances.
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Renewables developer Lightsource bp has begun construction on its Lower Wonga Solar Farm and Battery hybrid project near Gympie in Queensland. The project will combine an approximately 380MWdc solar farm with a 281MW/843MWh battery energy storage system, bringing together large-scale renewable generation and flexible storage to make this one of the largest hybrid projects in Australia. Once operational, Lower Wonga will add substantial renewable generation and dispatchable capacity to the National Electricity Market, supporting the delivery of lower-cost electricity while helping the system respond more effectively to changing demand patterns. The project is expected to generate enough electricity to power the equivalent to approximately 126,000 homes each year. Related article:Aula Energy acquires 1GW solar portfolio from Lightsource bp In addition, Lightsource bp has signed a hybrid offtake agreement with Rio Tinto combining low‑cost solar generation with battery storage to deliver reliable renewable power. The agreement supports Rio Tinto’s renewable energy portfolio in Queensland and highlights the increasing role of integrated solar and storage projects in meeting the energy needs of large industrial customers. The project has also secured support under the Australian Government’s Capacity Investment Scheme (CIS). The scheme provides long-term revenue certainty for new renewable generation projects while helping accelerate the rollout of additional capacity needed to support Australia’s energy transition and strengthen the National Electricity Market. Lightsource bp chief operating officer for Asia-Pacific Adam Pegg said, “The global power sector is entering a new phase. It’s no longer just about building renewable generation—it’s about how solar and storage are now the lowest-cost sources of energy, to support growing demand from data centres, industry, and the electrification of transportation. “Lower Wonga reflects that shift. Solar provides the lowest-cost scalable electricity, while battery storage allows that energy to be shifted to periods of higher demand, strengthening flexibility and reliability across the grid. Combining solar generation with storage strengthens the energy security value of renewable energy, enabling customers to benefit from long‑term, predictable energy costs over the life of the project. “Australia is one of the most attractive renewable energy markets in the world, and developments like Lower Wonga demonstrate how solar and storage together can deliver reliable, low‑cost power at scale.” Related article:Lightsource bp advances first solar and storage hybrid project A joint venture between INTEC Energy Solutions and Gotion Hi-Tech Australia has been appointed as the engineering, procurement and construction partner to deliver the project. At peak construction, the project is expected to support around 400-500 jobs, alongside opportunities for local businesses, contractors, and suppliers where possible. The project is expected to be operational in late 2028. Click Here to Subscribe Sign up to receive the latest Energy News emailed directly to your Inbox Click Here to Subscribe A US-based AI cloud provider is set to build Australia’s biggest data centre and connect it to the nation’s greenest grid. #AI #datacentre #renewables #energytransition #datacenter #technology
A surge in Australian data centre construction driven by AI use risks pushing up power bills and climate pollution, according to a new report. #datacentres #datacenters #energytransition #renewables #powerprices #AI
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The City of San Antonio has announced its largest rooftop solar installation ever. It sits on top of the Ron Darner Parks and Recreation Headquarters off Old Highway 90 on the Far West Side. Doug Melnick is the city’s assistant director of resiliency and sustainability. He said the installation will reduce the electric bill at the headquarters. “We’re going to offset upwards of 70 to 80% of this building energy use with clean power. So not only is it going to help with air quality and the environment, at the end of the day, it’s going to save taxpayer dollars.” Those savings will add up to $130,000 in annual utility savings, city officials said. The installation also marks the halfway point of the city’s $30 million-dollar solar program. The program has a goal of zero net energy for all municipal buildings by 2040. Started in 2023 after city council approval, the program is the first and largest of its kind in Texas. It includes more than 50 rooftop and parking cover solar systems at city owned facilities. City officials said once its fully implemented, it will generate $1.8 million in annual savings, offset 11% of the city’s yearly electrical use and reduce city emissions by 18%.
In July 2022, a fierce summer storm rocked Wake Electric, a North Carolina cooperative serving nearly 60,000 households and other customers from the dense suburbs of Raleigh, the state capital, to rural areas along the Virginia border and in the coastal plain. Wind downed lines and knocked out power for thousands for over seven hours. “It was one of these very difficult outages where we had a line laying across a road,” said Don Bowman, the co-op’s senior vice president and assistant general manager. “We had to coordinate a lot of activities, and it took us a while to get this power back on.” But Eagle Chase, a small housing community equipped with a propane-fueled generator and a 1-megawatt Tesla battery pack, was almost completely unscathed. The devices form a microgrid that can function without the co-op’s larger distribution system of poles and wires. “The success story,” Bowman said, “is the Eagle Chase development saw an outage of less than about 58 milliseconds.” The Eagle Chase battery is among three storage systems in Wake Electric’s territory. The second, in Wake Forest, is a 1-megawatt-hour battery paired with a 500-kilowatt solar farm; its purpose is to dispatch solar electrons when the sun doesn’t shine. The third, a 5-megawatt battery located at the co-op’s main substation, stores power that can be discharged when supplies are constrained and electricity prices are high. The systems illustrate three key advantages of battery storage, Bowman said: providing resiliency, increasing the reliability of renewable energy, and responding to periods of high demand. “We have three systems, and I think that we check all three of those boxes differently with each of the projects,” he said.
Wake Electric isn’t alone. As of April 2025, rural co-ops across North Carolina had 43 battery projects operating or in development, according to the National Rural Electric Cooperative Association. Co-ops here were spearheading more grid batteries than those in any other state; Alaska was a distant second with 13 projects. The co-ops say they aren’t trying to win any national contests. They’re just trying to do right by the members they serve. “Community support is one of the pillars we drive toward,” said Erik Hall, a director at the North Carolina Electric Membership Corp., a statewide entity that owns the battery assets and provides generation and transmission for 25 rural cooperatives. “What can we do to support the membership?” The battery investments are partly a response to challenges now sweeping the country: Skyrocketing demand from data centers and other factors are constraining supplies and triggering expensive grid upgrades, driving up the costs of electricity. Storing electrons for use when demand is at its peak and prices are high is a huge money saver for these customer-owned nonprofits — especially as the costs of batteries are falling and federal tax credits for the resources are still available. “What these battery systems have been able to do is really save folks money while increasing resilience, and helping with reliability sort of across the footprint,” said Rob Greskowiak, chief commercial officer for Lightshift Energy, a storage developer that has worked with several co-ops outside North Carolina, including in neighboring Virginia. “It’s really an economic story.” Money isn’t the only motivator. Co-ops often serve far-flung corners of the state, where an investor-owned utility like Duke Energy would earn a meager profit. Many of these areas — from rugged mountains to fragile barrier islands — are also prone to outages from extreme weather. That’s why almost a decade ago, Tideland Electric Member Corp. set up the state’s first cooperative-run microgrid on Ocracoke Island — complete with 62 solar panels, a battery pack, and a diesel generator. The system kept the power on for island residents in the summer of 2017, after a construction crew accidentally severed a transmission line to the mainland. “The solar worked,” Heidi Smith, a Tideland co-op manager, said back then. “The Tesla batteries were able to add power to the system.” North Carolina’s co-ops also have set a target of zeroing out their carbon emissions by midcentury, though, unlike Duke, they’re not required to by law. “It’s in our mission statement to constantly be moving toward cleaner energy solutions,” Bowman of Wake Electric co-op explained. The benefits and costs of the individual battery systems can be spread out among the co-ops and their millions of customers, since all these storage devices are managed by the North Carolina Electric Membership Corp. “Having all of these assets is wonderful,” the corporation’s Hall said. “But if you can’t aggregate them and utilize them when they’re needed, then you’re not really bringing to bear the value of them.” That means calling on the storage assets when high demand sends electricity prices soaring or dispatching them during extreme weather events to enhance reliability.
“I sound like I’m tooting our horn, and I am,” Hall said. “We’ve built one of the most innovative and capable [distributed energy resource management] systems in the country.” “I don’t call it a virtual power plant, because it sounds very financial, economic,” he added. “Our systems are grounded in reliability.” Still, not every move made by the state’s co-ops has been in lockstep with the clean energy transition. North Carolina Electric Membership Corp. is pursuing a large new gas-generation plant in Person County in conjunction with Duke and already owns two single-cycle, peaking gas plants outright. It’s also made a long-shot bid to the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission that, if successful, could upend how transmission upgrades are paid for and stall new solar from coming onto the grid. The split screen just reinforces that batteries are not, for many adopters, first and foremost about curbing carbon emissions. “North Carolina can be viewed as a leader in this space, but I think it’s important to reiterate that it’s not because of sustainability goals or clean energy goals,” Greskowiak said. “The economic case for battery storage is only going to grow. The rest of the country is catching up.”
Chinese PV module maker JinkoSolar launched its new Tiger Neo 5.0 module series at the SNEC 2026 trade show in Shanghai, China. The company said the product represents an upgrade from its earlier 670 W Tiger Neo 3.0 module. It delivers up to 700 W of output at the same module size as the previous generation, with module efficiency of 25.91% and power density of more than 259 W/m². The panel uses a high-purity homogeneous silicon substrate, broad-spectrum light-trapping structure, full-area passivation and gap-free cell-array encapsulation to improve conversion efficiency and module-level output. The company is positioning the module for utility-scale ground-mounted projects, commercial and industrial bifacial applications and residential monofacial systems. In comparison to Tiger Neo 3.0, Tiger Neo 5.0 can reportedly increase power generation by 2.1% in utility-scale ground-mounted projects, 1.9% in commercial and industrial bifacial scenarios and 0.9% in residential monofacial applications. The module has a bifaciality of over 85%, a temperature coefficient of -0.26%/C, first-year degradation of no more than 1% and annual linear degradation of 0.35%, according to the company. JinkoSolar also said the module displayed stronger performance under partial shading in third-party testing, with lower power losses than comparable products under light and moderate shading conditions. No further technical details about the new product were revealed. Alongside the Tiger Neo 5.0, JinkoSolar introduced a scenario-based module portfolio covering six application categories. The portfolio includes its Dust-Resistant module, which uses a three-dimensional anti-dust design and nano-coated glass to reduce operation and maintenance costs, and its AIDC module designed for data centers, with the company claiming more than 3% higher lifecycle power generation and an 88.6% reduction in system risk costs. The portfolio also featured the company’s Safety Guardian module designed for high-reliability applications, with resistance to 55 mm hail, dual Class A fire certification and high mechanical load capacity and its Anti-Glare module with a reflectance of 7% that targets transport hubs and other sites where light pollution is a concern. The portfolio is rounded out by the LiteTitan module, which weighs 7 kg/m² for load-restricted rooftops, and the Mount Tai module, which features a strengthened frame for harsh environments such as deserts and wastelands. From pv magazine Global Comments Please login to comment Thursday, July 9, 2026 11:00 am – 12:30 pm CEST, Berlin, Paris, Madrid Thursday, June 18, 2026 2:00 pm – 3:00 pm CEST, Berlin, Paris, Madrid Wednesday, June 10, 2026 3:00 pm – 4:00 pm CEST, Berlin, Paris, Madrid Tuesday, June 9, 2026 11:00 am – 12:00 pm CEST, Berlin, Paris, Madrid Thursday, June 11, 2026 5:00 pm – 6:00 pm CEST, Berlin, Paris, Madrid Monday, June 1, 2026 5:30 pm – 6:30 pm CEST, Berlin, Madrid, Paris Tuesday, June 16, 2026 6 am – 7:00 am CEST, Berlin Friday, June 12, 2026 2:00 pm – 3:00 pm CEST, Berlin, Paris, Madrid The new pv magazine Global May issue is now available! Mountains to climb Available in print and digital formats. Entries open in seven categories: Modules, Inverters, BoS, BESS, Manufacturing, Sustainability, Projects. April 01 – August 31, 2026 Energy-hungry data centers open new doors for solar and storage. Available in print and digital formats.
Colby Groves, documenting Amazon’s Baldy Mesa solar project. This week in the Anthropocene The road is dusty and trash-strewn. My friend and collaborator Colby Groves is hanging out the car window as I drive, gazing at a patchwork of solar panels lined up behind a chain-link fence. “This has to be it,” declares Colby, balancing a large camera on his lap, hoping it doesn’t bounce off as we traverse a series of bumps and divots. We are in this land of scorching sun and heat, searching for a large Amazon solar installation in rural San Bernardino County, California. This is the home of the endangered desert tortoise and Joshua trees, but more recently, it’s become a plaything for greedy Silicon Valley entrepreneurs. In 2024, Jeff Bezos’ Amazon connected its Baldy Mesa solar-and-storage project, which helps to power the company’s nearby data centers, to the electrical grid, earning accolades for its use of renewable energy. It’s the first of its kind in California. Despite its gargantuan size, the project faced very little opposition, as is often the case with such “green” projects. As we step out of the car, we immediately hear the loud hum of a football-field’s worth of batteries, powered by solar panels that surround us in every direction. The entire setup is connected to the grid by towering transmission lines. Altogether, this sprawling array covers 1,500 acres of Mojave Desert habitat, almost twice the size of New York City’s Central Park. Baldy Mesa’s impact on this delicate ecology is stark and tangible. Where Joshua trees once stood, Lego-like blocks of batteries the size of shipping containers now buzz and radiate heat. Where coyotes once scampered and desert tortoises burrowed, solar panels now blanket the landscape. Amazon avoided controversy by relocating 153 doomed Joshua trees, but the fact remains, there’s not a single Joshua tree where these photovoltaic panels now sit. This particular Amazon Web Services (AWS) facility is an AI-driven machine-learning operation capable of analyzing 33 billion data points each year. That’s over 90 million data points a day. They claim it will allow their batteries to run more efficiently, while making you a better, wiser consumer of Amazon’s products and services. As far as corporate marketing gimmicks go, this sure sounds nice. Yet, as I stand in the middle of Amazon’s solar farm, I can’t help but wonder what this desert must have been like before they decided it was better suited to powering AI programs. What was it like out here when the soil could still sequester carbon? Building on these lands has eliminated its ability to absorb fossil-fuel pollution. These solar panels are actually hurting the climate, not helping it out. Even though this behemoth runs on renewable energy, nothing about it feels eco-friendly. Like so much of this AI-driven madness, there is a very post-apocalyptic aura to it all, made worse by the fact that Jeff Bezos is reaping the spoils. “Wow, look at that.” Colby points to a fence set up to protect the battery installation. The gate is wide open. Someone more inclined to commit sabotage would have no difficulty gaining access. But we aren’t here for data center mischief. Colby sets up his tripod to shoot footage to accompany Bad Energy, my forthcoming book exploring the downside of the so-called green energy transition. Few people will ever make their way to this remote spot in the Mojave to witness firsthand what Amazon has wrought. Aerial photographs obscure the reality of what it’s like on the ground amid the AI upheaval being thrust upon us without our consent. And, despite my many misgivings, this whole monstrosity is allegedly one of the better ones. Most new data centers aren’t powered by renewables but by fossil fuels. Colby Groves in action. +++ Unless you’ve been slithering under a rock for the last few years (I empathize!), you know data centers are bad news. They suck up water. 17.4 billion gallons annually in the US. They burn electricity. 176 terawatt-hours (4% of all US energy use) yearly. Globally, they use 415 terawatt-hours, which is more than that of only 10 countries. They are creating heat islands. In some cases, warming the land around them by 16 degrees Fahrenheit. They eat up land. The average data center is the equivalent of 450 football fields. They aren’t long-term job producers. Even the Wall Street Journalcalls data centers a “job-creation bust.” And of course, they are the beating heart of the AI revolution, which is encroaching on every aspect of our lives. But really, how bad are these damn things? After all, they aren’t a new invention; they’ve been around since the dawn of the computer age. Yet, something is quantitatively different about what’s happening. At the current pace, data centers globally will require $1 trillion in annual infrastructure investment by the end of the decade. It helps to put all of this in numbers. In the United States, there are between 1,500 and 1,600 data centers in the planning or construction phase, with over 4,000 already operating. A Pew study estimates that 67% of these new plants are coming to rural America, where 87% of existing centers currently operate in urban zones. There are 754 data centers planned in the South. 277 in the West. 419 in the Midwest and 106 in the Northeast. Right now, Pew has shown 38% of Americans live within 5 miles of a data center. Globally, there are 11,000+ data centers, and economies of scale are expected to dominate. This means the footprint of future data centers will matter more than the number of data centers being built. The energy required for this growth, as the Southern Environmental Law Center predicts, will supercharge climate chaos. This is because many of these new plants use natural gas to generate power. Natural gas, while not as dirty as coal, releases methane, which, in the short term, is even more harmful than carbon dioxide. Gas plants also emit carbon. Lots of it. A study released in April predicted that just three of Microsoft’s AI-powered, methane-gas-powered data center projects will double the company’s carbon footprint and spew large amounts of pollution. Another paper from researchers at Cornell predicts that up to 44 million metric tons of CO2 will be emitted by decade’s end if operators continue to rely on natural gas to power their data centers. As Grist reports, that’s like adding 10 million new vehicles on the road. The UN just published a study stating that by 2030, data centers will account for 3% of the world’s total energy use, a total of 935 terawatt-hours of electricity, emitting 440 million tons of carbon dioxide This week, Columbia Riverkeeper (a fantastic org that deserves your support) dropped a startling report on what planned data centers will do in their corner of the Pacific Northwest. The study exposes how fossil fuel companies, utilities, and Big Tech are colluding to use the surge in data center development to expand gas-fired power plants and more pipelines. “After years of progress toward achieving our region’s climate goals, we’re suddenly a potential new market for the fossil fuel industry,” says my friend Audrey Leonard, a staff attorney for Columbia Riverkeeper. “Cloaked under a shroud of secrecy, Big Tech opened the window, and now the gas industry is poised to seize an opportunity to build.” This is a microcosm of what is happening nationwide. Data centers, fueled by massive capital investments in AI, will make it even harder to reduce the country’s contribution to climate chaos. Then there’s the issue of water. A crowdsourced map compiled by Erin Brockovich shows that many data centers in the United States are operating in areas experiencing extreme drought. This isn’t good news where water conservation is needed, which may soon be much of the country. As mentioned above, data centers in the US, by one estimate, directly consumed 17.4 billion gallons of water per year. As more of these centers get built, that amount is expected to grow to 38-73 billion gallons annually. That’s a lot of water, more than the cities of Seattle or San Francisco use in an entire year. +++ In this week’s good news, I’ll leave you with these little nuggets. As Jared Kushner, Trump’s right-hand man in the Middle East, moves forward with a $1.6 billion luxury resort in Albania, thousands have taken to the streets to protest, arguing that the development will destroy vital wetland habitats. The pressure appears to be paying off, and a corruption probe has been initiated. Wild elephants have returned to eastern Zambia for the first time in 50 years, and locals are learning to coexist. And an endangered condor flew in Oregon for the first time in over 120 years. Pack that in, and I’ll see you next week. Colby Groves and Joshua Frank in JTNP, photo by Chelsea Mosher. JOSHUA FRANK is co-editor of CounterPunch and co-host of CounterPunch Radio. He is the author of Atomic Days: The Untold Story of the Most Toxic Place in America, and the forthcoming, Bad Energy: The AI Hucksters, Rogue Lithium Extractors, and Wind Industrialists Who are Selling Off Our Future, both with Haymarket Books. He can be reached at joshua@counterpunch.org. You can troll him on Bluesky @joshuafrank.bsky.social
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Newsletters Sign up A new solar-powered desalination device could help address society’s growing thirst for freshwater and energy. The device has specially engineered solar panels that pull potable water from seawater while also extracting salts, including lithium. Because it removes salts, the system does not produce harmful brine waste. Researchers at the University of Rochester reported the device in the journal Light: Science and Applications. And in a recent related paper published in the Journal of Materials Chemistry A, the team showed that the panels can be tweaked to separate lithium from the recovered salts. The modified device extracted about half of the lithium from Great Salt Lake water samples. According to the United Nations, the world has entered an “era of global water bankruptcy”. About 2.2 billion people do not have access to safely managed drinking water, and 3 billion live in areas where total water levels are declining or unstable. Many parched regions of the world rely on desalination plants that convert seawater into fresh water. But the technologies used today are energy-intensive and expensive. They also generate large volumes of concentrated briny water that is discharged into the ocean where it can damage local ecosystems. So the Rochester team took inspiration from the coffee ring effect to design their new solar desalination device. First, they etch small, black metal panels with ultra-fast lasers to make special solar panels. The textured black surface absorbs nearly all incoming sunlight and is very good at attracting water. The patterned region quickly wicks water. As the device absorbs sunlight, the water evaporates and is distilled into fresh water. Meanwhile, the metal’s grooves are patterned in a way that they guide the salts and minerals outward to the edges of the active area, much like a coffee ring is formed as liquid evaporates and push the solid particles out in a circle. For lithium extraction, the researchers embedded hydrogen titanate nanoparticles into the panel’s grooves. The particles selectively trap lithium ions selectively while other salts move to the passive collection zone. “Mining lithium from the Earth has proven to be very taxing from an energy and environmental standpoint, so pulling lithium directly from saltwater could be a very important future route,” said Chunlei Guo, a professor of optics and physics, in a press release. Sources: Image: University of Rochester photo / J. Adam Fenster Share This Article What to Read Next
Lithium in old batteries. Cobalt in discarded electronics. The rare earths in retired wind turbines. A landmark EU-funded study finds these buried materials could supply over half of what the clean energy economy will need.
Sarah DeWeerdt Decades of agricultural stress appear to have forged unusually heat-resistant microbial communities. Researchers think cropland soils could be transplanted to restore fragile ecosystems.
Emma Bryce A 15-year field experiment in Kenya reveals that dung beetles—and the ecosystem services they provide—collapse when elephants disappear, offering evidence of coextinction in the wild.
Ottawa commits 11 million dollars (15 million Canadian dollars) to the 100 MW Turning Sun Solar photovoltaic park in Saskatchewan, one of Canada's largest renewable energy projects currently underway. Just your email — that's all it takes.
Avangrid has finished construction on its Tower Solar project in Morrow County, Oregon. The 166 Megawatt-dc (120 MWac) project features more than 250,000 solar panels assembled by SEG Solar. Once commissioning activity is complete, the project will deliver energy to Portland General Electric (PGE). Avangrid expects it to be in commercial operation this summer. “As demand for electricity continues to grow across the United States and in the Pacific Northwest, projects like Tower Solar are essential to delivering new generation at scale,” Avangrid CEO Jose Antonio Miranda, said. “Furthermore, this project demonstrates how investment in America’s electrical infrastructure contributes to our domestic economy, supports union workers, and delivers reliable electricity to support the region’s growth.” Tower Solar sites is located on about 900 acres of industrially zoned land owned by the Port of Morrow – just west of Boardman, Oregon. “As a leading American solar manufacturer, SEG Solar is proud to support Tower Solar with high-performance, US-manufactured modules,” Jim Wood, CEO of SEG Solar, said. “This project aligns with our mission to strengthen the domestic energy supply chain. By providing fully compliant, traceable, and reliable solar solutions, we are meeting energy demands while driving American manufacturing and creating local jobs.” Avangrid created approximately 200 construction jobs in building this project, most of them filled by regional union labor. “IBEW Local 112 members bring unmatched skill, safety, and productivity to projects like the Tower Solar project located in Eastern Oregon,” Travis Sellers, business manager for IBEW Local 112, said. “We are delighted that our partnership with Avangrid and its contractors has produced another energy project that will power communities for generations.” Tower Solar is expected to pay about $20 million in combined PILOTs — payment in lieu of taxes — and property taxes which will directly support the local community. Tower Solar will deliver electricity to PGE’s grid through Green Future Impact (GFI), a voluntary program designed to help large municipal, commercial, and industrial customers meet their sustainability and carbon reduction goals. The program lets large customers choose non-emitting energy without increasing costs for other customers.
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Share article Print article The state of New York could meet its goal of building 46 gigawatts of large-scale solar by midcentury, but not without making difficult choices in how land is used across the state. That’s the overall finding of an analysis several colleagues and I have made in that state. It’s an issue that other states, and the U.S. as a whole, are facing as they seek to shift electricity generation from fossil fuels to renewable sources, such as wind and solar. The question of land use arises because power plants that burn coal and natural gas can produce large amounts of electricity from relatively small areas of land – but solar requires more space to generate the same amount of electricity. That means deciding which land to build on, and why.
It’s often convenient to build solar projects in pastures and hay fields, for instance. But the dairy industry and agriculture more generally are key components in New York state’s economy, and building in agricultural areas would leave less land for those important industries. However, protecting farmland could lead solar developers to consider using existing forests. Yet forests not only soak up carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, helping reduce the effects of fossil-fuel emissions that are changing the global climate, but also support biodiversity by providing important habitat for wildlife. Basically, deciding to prioritize one type of land use means shifting that amount of development pressure to land now being used for other purposes. As a geographer, I study these trade-offs and their inherent tensions to better understand how to determine the best way to use a particular piece of land to reduce carbon emissions. One of the primary obstacles to building more large-scale solar is the drawn-out debate over where to put it. Typical decision-making factors include farmland loss, wildlife habitat, rural landscapes and who ultimately uses the energy. The results will determine who benefits from the expansion of renewable energy and who bears the ecological and social costs.
Solar energy is the fastest-growing source of electricity in the U.S., with nearly 397 gigawatts waiting to come on line as of 2025. Of that, 70 gigawatts of generating capacity is expected to come on line in 2026 and 2027 – on top of the nearly 148 gigawatts operating at the end of 2025. This represents progress toward reducing carbon emissions but also requires vast tracts of repurposed land. For example, a 100-megawatt solar project could require approximately 417 acres of land, roughly the same area as 316 American football fields, based on a conservative power density of 0.24 megawatts per acre. Therefore, the 70 gigawatts of solar energy expected to come on line in the next two years will require just over 320,000 acres of land, or about 242,424 football fields, about 53% of which is expected to displace farmland. Additionally, those projects are expected to replace roughly 22,000 acres of forest and just under 10,000 acres of wetlands.
Energy, agriculture and conservation don’t have to be mutually exclusive uses of land. Instead, land can be managed more efficiently by integrating multiple uses, commonly referred to as colocation. Grazing livestock or growing crops underneath or between rows of raised solar panels, known as agrivoltaics, is one way to keep land available for agriculture while also generating electricity. Another approach, known as ecovoltaics, involves designing solar projects to equally support renewable energy and ecosystem services, such as providing habitat for pollinators or reducing evaporation in stressed arid ecosystems. Another emerging alternative involves solar panels that are constructed to float on water rather than being mounted on land.
Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript. Advertisement Nature Communicationsvolume 17, Article number: 4785 (2026) Cite this article 6176 Accesses Metrics details Photovoltaic-thermoelectric (PV-TE) hybrid systems offer a platform for enhancing the energy conversion efficiency of photovoltaic devices. However, they still suffer from energy losses and limited efficiency improvements owing to underutilized parasitic thermal energy and electrical parameters mismatches between PV and TE components. Here, we presented a comprehensive theoretical analysis and simulation based on a PV-TE Thermo-Electrical Coupling Model, predicting that the maximum efficiency of the system could reach 60.34% with state-of-the-art PV and commercial TE technologies. Following this model, we fabricated hybrid systems with organic and perovskite solar cells coupled with thermoelectric cells, achieving record-high efficiencies of 34.85% and 42.03% at 298 K, and 43.16% and 50.28% at 313 K, respectively, under AM 1.5 G illumination, with optimal thermal utilization and current matching between series-connected PV and TE modules. This work highlights the potential of PV-TE hybrid systems and could offer guidance for designing higher-efficiency systems, driving future advancements in photovoltaics. Sunlight, as a clean and sustainable energy, has long been harnessed through photovoltaic technology on a global scale to generate electricity. Recently, significant advancements have sparked renewed excitement in the field. Notable progress has been made recently in areas such as organic solar cells (OSCs)1,2 and perovskite solar cells (PSCs)3,4, as well as in thermophotovoltaics (TPV)5,6 and concentrating photovoltaics (CPV)7,8. TPV and CPV technologies have garnered considerable interest due to their relatively high efficiencies5,9. However, they require ultrahigh-temperature heat sources10 and condensers11, which complicates their structural design. As emerging photovoltaic technologies, solution-processed solar cells such as OSCs and PSCs are catching more interest due to their many unique advantages, such as simple fabrication process, low cost, lightweight, and potential for roll-to-roll large-area production4,12,13. To date, the best power conversion efficiency achieved for single-junction OSCs and PSCs and silicon-based solar cells has risen to 21%2,14,15, 27%4,16,17, and 28%18, respectively. However, further efficiency improvement remains challenging, as these cells can only utilize a limited portion of sunlight in the visible and near-infrared regions, and also the parasitic heat, mainly generated from the sub-bandgap photons and thermalization loss, has been wasted19,20. For any photovoltaic technology, following the law of conservation of energy, to achieve the maximum electricity output, the sunlight must be used in the maximum manner and the parasitic heat generated in the process should be minimized or used at the maximum21,22. Meanwhile, as it is well-known, the heat generated during the operation of solar cells, primarily from infrared sunlight21,23 and the parasitic heat19,20, not only reduces the efficiency (Supplementary Fig. 1) but also impacts their operational lifespan. This issue is particularly critical for emerging OSCs and PSCs technologies. Therefore, converting the parasitic heat from solar cells into electricity, while maintaining a low operating temperature, could not only enhance the utilization of solar energy and boost power conversion efficiency but also extend the lifespan of the solar cells22,24. Thermoelectric (TE) technology, which can directly convert thermal energy into electricity via Seebeck effect25,26, has been long used for parasitic heat recovery and utilization in many scenarios27,28,29. Thus, it would be a perfect fit to combine PV and TE cells together21,22. Indeed, since the concept of PV-TE hybrid system was first proposed in the 1970s30, many pioneering theoretical simulations and experimental studies have been carried out22,31,32,33. But surprisingly, a comprehensive investigation of the literatures finds that, up to date, the best reported simulated efficiency is only 33.8% for PV-TE hybrid systems9,34. Regarding the experimental studies, unfortunately, the highest reported efficiency of PV-TE hybrid systems is merely approximately 23% under AM 1.5 G solar illumination32,35. These surprisingly low efficiencies in literatures for PV-TE hybrid systems in terms of both theoretical and experimental studies indicate that there must be some fundamental issues, and thus some serious and comprehensive analysis is warranted. It should be noted that the prevailing efficiency measurement for PV-TE hybrid systems is typically defined as the ratio of electrical energy output to incident solar energy input, which is consistent with the calculation of the power conversion efficiency (PCE) for standalone PV cells21,22,35. Contributions from ambient thermal energy or additional cooling sources are typically not considered. This method enables a direct comparison of the performance improvement of PV-TE hybrid systems relative to standalone PV cells. Above the obvious requirement that the PV and TE cells themselves should be state-of-the-art in the PV-TE hybrid systems, it is crucial that the parasitic heat generated from the sunlight must be efficiently converted into electricity through the TE module to maximize overall system efficiency36,37,38. Moreover, the output power (efficiency) of any PV-TE hybrid system must adhere to basic physics principles for multi-cell systems to achieve the maximum or energy lossless coupling output39,40. Clearly, the possible maximum output power of the PV-TE hybrid system is the sum of the two given individual PV and TE cells/modules according to the energy conservation law, and this requires the two modules of PV and TE in the hybrid system to have electrically matchable characteristic parameters (note the PV and TE cells are very different in their electrical parameters)41,42,43. Therefore, to achieve the best-performed PV-TE hybrid system, it is essential to optimize the overall configuration of the hybrid system to simultaneously maximize parasitic heat utilization and achieve energy lossless coupling output between the PV and TE submodules. Considering the overwhelming complexity, systematic modeling is first required. Thus, we constructed a PV-TE Thermo-Electrical Coupling Model (PT-TECM) to analyze the conditions of maximizing heat utilization and matching electrical parameters, and then simulated the efficiency of PV-TE hybrid systems through the COMSOL Multiphysics® platform. Following the proposed model above, we predicted that the maximum efficiency of the optimized PV-TE hybrid system could reach 60.34% by using the best single-junction PSCs4,16,17 and commercialized TE materials26,44,45. Guided by these simulations, our fabricated optimized solution-processed solar cells (OSCs and PSCs) and thermoelectric hybrid systems connected in series achieved record efficiency of 34.85% / 43.16% and 42.03% / 50.28% at environmental temperatures (Tatm) of 298 K/313 K (with the active area of 0.24/0.28 cm2) under AM 1.5 G solar illumination, respectively. To demonstrate scalability, we further fabricated a larger-area 1.0 cm2 OSC-TE hybrid system using the same strategy. This larger system also exhibited a high efficiency of 33.48% at 298 K, with an efficiency similar to that of the small-area OSC-TE hybrid system. Furthermore, we fabricated a large-area, flexible and wearable OSC-TE hybrid system capable of directly powering a sensor for real-time pulse monitoring, while the individual OSC module could not achieve this due to its relatively low output power. We believe the results of both theoretical modeling and experimental results demonstrated in this work would provide valuable design guidelines for high-performance PV-TE hybrid systems, particularly for solution-processed PV cells, and significantly expand their application potential in various fields. As mentioned above, to address the overwhelming complexity and guide the fabrication and optimization of such high-performed hybrid systems, the PT-TECM was established (Supplementary Notes1 and 2) to achieve both the conditions for optimal parasitic heat utilization and electrical parameter matching and further simulate the efficiency (η) of the PV-TE hybrid systems. The simulation involved the development of heat transfer and equivalent circuit models using the COMSOL Multiphysics® platform (Supplementary Note 2). For efficient harvesting of parasitic thermal energy, TE cells are configured as a stacked module located beneath the PV module in the PV-TE hybrid system (Supplementary Note 1.1). In terms of electrical parameter matching, the maximum output power of the hybrid system can be achieved either by connecting two different types of batteries in parallel or in series (Supplementary Note 1.2). However, as detailed in Supplementary Note 1.3, due to the changing temperature and light intensity of the actual application environment, the voltage and current of both PV and TE cells (modules) vary correspondingly. This would lead to severe charging/discharging between the PV and TE cells if connected in parallel, even leading to overheating or battery damage. But for the system connected in series, the PV and TE cells (modules) can still operate relatively stable. Therefore, the connection of PV and TE modules in series would be the best choice and was thus used in this study. For a series-connected PV-TE hybrid system, current matching must be achieved to maximize output power. This means that the PV and TE modules must produce the same output current at their respective maximum output power points to ensure the highest efficiency of the entire system. Guided by the theoretical analysis above, a heat transfer model of stacked TE modules was used to optimize thermal energy utilization (Supplementary Note 2.1). Current matching between the PV and TE modules was achieved through the appropriate series and parallel configuration of their respective sub-modules, and then the efficiency of the PV-TE hybrid system was calculated using an equivalent circuit model (Supplementary Note 2.2). Importantly, without maximizing parasitic heat utilization and electrical matching, the series-connected OSC or PSC and TE hybrid systems showed a very limited efficiency improvement of ~2–3% (Supplementary Fig. 2), similar to previous reports21,24. Using the PT-TECM, it is possible to simulate and optimize the output power and efficiency of any combination of PV and TE cells with different types, and the simulated results subsequently were used to guide us to carry out relevant experiments. Figure 1a illustrates the structure of the PV-TE hybrid system used in both simulations and experiments, where the PV (OSC or PSC) module (top) is connected to the TE module (bottom) in series with a thermal conductive layer between them, and the effective area of the PV and TE modules keeps always the same. Figure 1b shows the detailed structure of the OSC, PSC, and TE cell units used in this study. The TE cells are made of bismuth telluride (Bi2Te3)-based thermoelectric materials, due to their high thermoelectric performance and stability at room temperature46,47. The equivalent electrical circuits for the PV-TE hybrid systems are shown in Fig. 1c. AFM images of the OSC and PSC films reveal smooth surface topography. GIWAXS analysis of the OSC indicates well-defined molecular packing and orientation, while XRD patterns of the PSC confirm the formation of a well-crystallized perovskite phase (Supplementary Figs. 3, 4). UV-vis absorption spectra demonstrate the spectral complementarity between the PV and TE components for efficient solar energy harvesting (Supplementary Fig. 5). These characterizations demonstrate the reproducibility of device fabrication and provide a solid physical foundation for the integration of the PV-TE hybrid system. a Schematic illustration of the PV-TE hybrid system. PV and TE modules are connected in series, and all TE cells are connected in series. b Architecture of OSC, PSC, and TE cells. For the OSC, the active layer is PM6:L8-BO, with ZnO/NMA and MoOx serving as the electron transport layer and hole transport layer, respectively. In the PSC, the active layer is the perovskite material, while SnO2 and Spiro-OMeTAD/MoOx function as the electron transport layer and hole transport layer, respectively. The TE cell unit consists of multiple p/n Bi2Te3 legs connected in series, with a copper (Cu) layer serving as electrodes. c Equivalent electric circuit of the OSC-TE or PSC-TE hybrid systems. The OSC/PSC is modeled as a single-diode equivalent circuit, which consists of a photocurrent source in parallel with a diode and a shunt resistance (Rsh), together with a series resistance (Rs). The TE cell is modeled as a voltage source (VTE) with a series resistance (RTE). Ip is the photogenerated current, Ish is the current through the shunt resistance, Id is the current through the diode, and I is the output current. To optimize the utilization of parasitic thermal energy generated by solar cells, a heat transfer model of the stacked PV-TE hybrid structure was established (Supplementary Note 2.1). Using this model, the thermoelectric temperature difference (ΔT) and voltage (VTE) can be obtained by solving Equations S3-S8 (Supplementary Note 2.1). The established general heat transfer framework was then applied to a specific OSC-TE hybrid configuration, consisting of a single OSC (with a reported efficiency of 18% in our previous work48) and multiple commercial TE cells (see Supplementary Note 2.1 and Supplementary Fig. 6 for details). Both the OSC and each individual TE cell possess an identical active area of 0.04 cm2. To find the best conditions for heat utilization, the ΔT with different numbers (k) of TE layers in the system was simulated using the model, where k∈ [1, 10] (Supplementary Fig. 7). The hot-side temperature of the PV-TE hybrid system is determined by the heat generated from the solar cell under AM 1.5 G solar illumination, while the cold-side temperature could be controlled by various cooling methods. To achieve a large temperature difference and evaluate the maximum efficiency of the hybrid system, the cold-side temperature of the system was maintained at 0 °C (273 K). In the likely practical applications scenarios, without external energy input, the condition (0 °C) might be achieved when the PV-TE hybrid system is deployed in marine environments with seawater cooling (from the equator to the poles, seawater temperature decreases gradually from ~ 25 °C to ~ 0 °C or even below 0 °C), as well as in polar regions or space, as detailed in the final applications section. Detailed simulation results for ΔT and VTE of the 0.04 cm2 OSC-TE hybrid systems with different numbers of TE layers are shown in Fig. 2a (the blue shaded area) and Supplementary Fig. 8. In this case, since the overall performance of the series-connected hybrid system is mainly determined by ΔT and VTE from the TE module22, the relationship between the VTE and the number of TE layers (k) were selected to evaluate the efficiency of hybrid system. The shaded region in Fig. 2a represents the performance fluctuation range of the system due to changes in the temperature of the surrounding air, which exchanges heat convectively with the system (Supplementary Note 3). As the k increases from 1 to 10, the ΔT and VTE gradually increase and reach approximately constant when k exceeds 6. Then, the efficiency of the OSC-TE hybrid system was obtained by inserting the VTE into the equivalent circuit model and solving Equations S9-S13 (Supplementary Note 2.2). As a result, the OSC-TE hybrid system reaches the maximum efficiency improvement (Δη = ηOSC-TE – ηOSC) at k = 6 (the red shaded area in Fig. 2a), compared to the individual OSC. a Experimental and simulated TE voltage (VTE) and performance enhancement (Δη) of 0.04 cm2 OSC-TE hybrid systems with varying numbers of TE layers (k∈ [1, 10]), compared to the individual OSC. The cold-side temperature was maintained at 273 K. The shaded regions represent the fluctuation range of VTE and Δη due to the variation in the temperature of the air that conducting convective heat transfer with the systems. b The current ratio between OSC and TE modules, and Δη of OSC-TE hybrid systems relative to the standalone OSC with varying areas of 0.04 × n cm2, where n∈ [1, 9]. n represents the number of 0.04 cm2 OSC units connected in parallel, and m represents the number of 0.04 cm2 TE units connected in series in each layer. n is equal to m due to the same areas of the PV and TE units, as well as the final module, to optimize heat transfer. The PV or TE current is measured at maximum power points when modules operate independently. The shaded band indicates efficiency fluctuation of the systems, due to the variation in the air temperature conducting convective heat transfer with the systems. In both (a, b) the center of the error bar is defined as the average value, and error bar is defined as the standard deviation, which is calculated from the statistical results of at least five individual devices. c, d Experimental champion J-V curves of OSC-TE (c) and PSC-TE (d) hybrid systems (n = m = 6, k = 6) at 298 K, corresponding to a system area of 0.24 cm2. Tatm is the environment temperature and η is the power conversion efficiency. eJ-V and P-V characteristics of the TE module in the optimized OSC-TE and PSC-TE hybrid systems at 298 K. f Power contribution of the PV and TE components in the optimized hybrid systems at 298 K. Guided by the simulation results above, we fabricated a series of PV-TE hybrid systems using the OSCs with a reported efficiency of 18% in our previous work48 and commercial TE cells with measured total Seebeck coefficient of 9.72 mV/K (Supplementary Fig. 6). The bottom temperature of the PV-TE hybrid system was maintained at 273 K. The experiment results of ΔT, VTE, and Δη of the system with different values of k are shown in Fig. 2a and Supplementary Fig. 9a. Note the overall performance enhancement (Δη) of the series-connected hybrid system is mainly determined by ΔT and VTE from the TE module. At k = 6, the ΔT and VTE reach their maximum value (approximately 28 K and 0.28 V, respectively), indicating that the TE module achieves optimal thermal energy utilization. At this condition, the 0.04 cm2 OSC-TE hybrid system achieved its highest efficiency of 23.99% (Supplementary Fig. 9b), corresponding to the Δη of 6.17%. Thus, we can conclude that the PV-TE hybrid system could maximize thermal energy utilization at k = 6. The consistency between the experimental and simulation results demonstrates the accuracy of our model and the reliability of the experimental data, highlighting the potential of our PT-TECM for performance optimization. Besides maximizing thermal energy utilization, current matching between the PV and TE modules is also a must for achieving maximum efficiency. Note the current at the maximum output power point of the TE module (k = 6) was approximately 7.0 mA, significantly larger than the current of the 0.04 cm2 OSC (1.0 mA). Therefore, to achieve the current matching, the PV module must be constructed with n solar cells connected in parallel to increase its current (Supplementary Fig. 10). Meanwhile, the areas of the PV and TE modules must be kept the same. Thus, each layer of the TE submodule was built with m TE cells connected in series, and then each layer of the TE submodule is again connected in series to form the final TE module, maintaining a constant current in the TE module. The effective area of the PV and TE modules must be equal to ensure maximum utilization of parasitic heat, therefore n = m. The corresponding heat transfer model and equivalent circuit model for current matching are shown in Supplementary Notes2.1 and 2.2. We can obtain the J-V curve and efficiency of the PV-TE hybrid system with different areas (corresponding to n = m∈ [1, 9], k = 6) by solving the Equations S9-S13 in Supplementary Note 2.2. The simulated results of Δη of the entire hybrid systems with different electrical matching are presented in the shaded area of Fig. 2b. Again, the shaded region reflected the performance fluctuation of the system due to changes in the temperature of the surrounding air, which exchanges heat convectively with the system (Supplementary Note 4). Note the Δη first increases and then decreases gradually. The PV and TE modules achieved electrical matching (the same current) and thus the highest simulated system efficiency when n = m = 6, k = 6. Guided by these simulation results, corresponding experiments were conducted using the OSCs and TE cells mentioned above. To achieve the best and also reliable experimental results, we prepared various OSC parallel modules with effective areas ranging from 0.04 to 0.36 cm2, corresponding to n∈ [1, 9], to have a complete and systematic experimental evaluation. As indicated by the above results and discussion on heat utilization, the number of TE layers was fixed at 6 (k = 6) to maximize heat utilization. Infrared thermal imaging of the PV-TE hybrid systems illustrates the thermal energy harvesting and the cooling effect provided by the TE modules, highlighting the thermal synergy between the PV and TE components (Supplementary Fig. 11). The experimental current ratio between OSC and TE modules and Δη of the OSC-TE hybrid system with different areas were shown in Fig. 2b. As the system area increases (n = m∈ [1, 9], k = 6), the measured current ratio of the OSC and TE modules increased from 0.13 to 1.49, with Δη initially increasing and then decreasing, peaking when the current ratio reached 1.0 (Fig. 2b and Supplementary Fig. 12a). At the peak point, the 0.24 cm2 OSC-TE hybrid system (n = m = 6, k = 6) achieved the maximum heat utilization and current matching simultaneously, resulting in the highest Δη of approximately 16.0% with energy lossless coupling output (Supplementary Fig. 12b), which is consistent with the simulated results (Fig. 2b and Supplementary Note 4). It is noted that the efficiency calculation method of the PV-TE hybrid system (Equation S13, Supplementary Note 2.2) follows the widely used approach in this field21,22,35, where the efficiency is the ratio of electrical energy output to solar energy input. Thus, Δη represents the ratio of the electricity generated by the TE module to the input solar energy. Figure 2c shows that the OSC-TE hybrid system (n = m = 6, k = 6) achieved the maximum efficiency of 34.85% at 298 K under AM 1.5 G solar illumination (Supplementary Table 1), with statistical distribution confirming reproducibility (Supplementary Fig. 13a). Furthermore, the efficiency of the 0.24 cm2 OSC-TE hybrid system with different TE layers (keep n = m = 6, k∈ [5, 7]) was also evaluated (Supplementary Fig. 13b), and the experimental results further confirm that k = 6 is indeed the optimal value for maximizing thermal energy utilization. Following the design guideline for optimal OSC-TE hybrid systems, we further fabricated PSC-TE hybrid systems using high-efficiency PSCs (approximately 26% efficiency) reported in our previous work49. As shown in Fig. 2d, the 0.24 cm2 PSC-TE hybrid system (n = m = 6, k = 6) achieved the maximum efficiency of 42.03% at 298 K (Supplementary Table 2), with statistical distribution confirming reproducibility (Supplementary Fig. 14). Under optimal coupling conditions, Figure 2e, f show that the total output power of the integrated PV-TE hybrid system is nearly equal to the sum of the maximum output powers of the PV and TE modules when operating independently. This demonstrates that the system achieved energy lossless coupling between the PV and TE components. Note that all the above simulated and experimental results of the system are based on basic PV and TE cells with an area of 0.04 cm2. To investigate the scalability of the system, we fabricated a larger-area 1.0 cm2 OSC-TE hybrid system using a single OSC and a six-layer TE module, with both the OSC and TE units having the same area of 1.0 cm2. As shown in Supplementary Fig. 15 and Table 3, the 1.0 cm2 OSC-TE hybrid system also exhibited similar efficiency improvement from 17.13% to 33.48%. The similar efficiency, independent of the device area, would be important for advancing larger-area PV-TE hybrid systems with high efficiency, as the large-area fabrication would be one of the critical factors for practical applications. So far, both the PV (OSC and PSC) and TE devices have achieved large-area module fabrication. A 204 cm2 OSC module with a certified power conversion efficiency of 14.5% was achieved in 202450. The PSC module, with a size of 2 m2, achieved a certified record efficiency of 20.05% in 202551. Bismuth telluride-based thermoelectric generators have also been widely produced and applied at large scale52. These results indicate that the PV-TE hybrid system could have excellent potential for scalability and would be capable of large-scale fabrication and application as technology progresses. Stability would be also one of the critical factors for practical applications. The PV (OSC and PSC) and TE units have demonstrated excellent stability under continuous illumination and temperature fluctuations. For the photostability, to date, the OSC could retain about 93% of their initial efficiency after 2000 hours of continuous maximum power point tracking (MPPT) under 1 sun condition53. The PSC could also retain about 82% of their initial efficiency after 2500 h of continuous MPPT under 1 sun condition54. For the thermal stability, to date, the OSC could retain 94% of their initial efficiency after 1032 hours of 85 °C/85% relative humidity damp heat and 200 thermal cycles (−40 °C to 85 °C) tests55. The PSC could also keep 92% of the initial efficiency when ageing at 85 °C for 1800 h and 94% after 200 thermal cycles between −40 °C and + 85 °C56. Furthermore, bismuth telluride-based thermoelectric generators have successfully achieved commercial production and application due to their exceptional stability52,57. To assess the stability of the PV-TE hybrid system, we compared the stability of the integrated system with that of each standalone unit under the same testing conditions. The photostability of standalone PV (OSC and PSC) and PV-TE (OSC-TE and PSC-TE) hybrid systems was evaluated under the ISOS-L-1 protocol. The experimental results indicated that both the OSC-TE and PSC-TE hybrid systems exhibited enhanced photostability compared to the standalone OSC and PSC due to the ability of TE module to harvest heat and provide cooling (Supplementary Fig. 16). Thermal stability was assessed under the ISOS-T-2 protocol by subjecting standalone PV (OSC and PSC) and PV-TE (OSC-TE and PSC-TE) hybrid systems to thermal cycles between 25 °C and 65 °C. The OSC and PSC integrated within the hybrid system exhibited similar thermal stability compared to the standalone OSC and PSC after 100 thermal cycles (Supplementary Fig. 17a, b). The TE module exhibited negligible change in output voltage and current after 100 thermal cycles (Supplementary Fig. 17c). In summary, the enhanced photostability and similar thermal stability of PV-TE hybrid system compared with the standalone PV units indicate that the integrated system could achieve or even exceed the reported stability of the PV units, demonstrating the system’s potential for reliable, long-term practical applications. To investigate the key factors influencing the efficiency of PV-TE hybrid system, a parametric study was conducted using the PT-TECM. The simulated results indicated that the efficiency of the PV-TE hybrid system increases with higher TE material figure of merit (zT) and higher PV cell efficiency (Fig. 3a and Supplementary Note 5). Moreover, a larger ΔT across the TE module, achieved by a lower cold-side temperature or a higher environmental temperature, can further improve the system efficiency (Fig. 3b and Supplementary Note 6). Additional parameters that might influence system performance, such as the convective heat transfer coefficient and thermal interface material properties, are presented in Supplementary Fig. 18. a Effect of the TE-material figure of merit (zT) and efficiency of PV cells on the efficiency of the 0.04 cm2 OSC-TE hybrid system (n = m = 1, k = 6) at 298 K under AM 1.5 G solar illumination, with a cold-side temperature of 273 K. b Effect of cold-side and environmental temperatures on the efficiency of the 0.04 cm2 OSC-TE hybrid system (n = m = 1, k = 6) under AM 1.5 G solar illumination. The PT-TECM analysis is based on steady-state thermal equilibrium and does not incorporate transient variations in irradiance, wind speed, or ambient temperature. c Simulated J-V curves of optimized PV-TE hybrid systems at 298 K and 313 K under AM 1.5 G solar illumination, with a cold-side temperature of 273 K, based on the state-of-the-art single-junction OSCs2,14,15 and PSCs4,16,17 reported in literatures and the best commercial Bi2Te3-based TE materials26,44,45. d Experimental J-V curves of 0.28 cm2 PV-TE hybrid systems (n = m = 7, k = 6) at 313 K under AM 1.5 G solar illumination, with a cold-side temperature of 273 K. Note that these peak efficiencies (e.g., > 50%) are obtained under controlled steady-state conditions, including AM1.5 G solar illumination and a regulated cold-side temperature. For performance deviations under outdoor conditions, see Supplementary Figs. 27 and 28. e Comparison of efficiency in this work with representative OSC-TE24,31, PSC-TE21,22,32,35,58, Inorganic PV-TE33,40,59,60 hybrid systems under AM 1.5 G solar illumination reported in literatures. Therefore, to explore the efficiency limit of the PV-TE hybrid system, we further carried out the simulation using the state-of-the-art PV cells (OSC with ~ 21% efficiency2,14,15 and PSC with ~27% efficiency4,16,17) and the best commercial Bi2Te3-based TE materials (zT ≈ 1.0 at room temperature26,44,45) (Fig. 3c and Supplementary Note 7). At 298 K (room temperature), the simulated optimal OSC-TE and PSC-TE hybrid systems (n = m = 6, k = 6) could achieve maximum efficiency of 40.67% and 47.06% under AM 1.5 G solar illumination, respectively. At 313 K (the environment temperature in a typical hot summer), the optimal OSC-TE and PSC-TE hybrid systems (n = m = 8, k = 6) could reach maximum efficiency of 53.88% and 60.34%, respectively. The reason that n and m are larger at 313 K compared to 298 K is that the higher environment temperature increases the ΔT and current of the TE module, thereby requiring more PV units connected in parallel for current matching. To verify the simulated results at 313 K, based on the existing OSC (18% efficiency) 48 and PSC (26% efficiency)49 in our laboratory, we further measured the efficiency of the OSC-TE and PSC-TE hybrid systems at 313 K. As shown in Fig. 3d, the OSC-TE and PSC-TE hybrid systems (n = m = 7, k = 6) achieved the maximum efficiency of 43.16% and 50.28% at 313 K under AM 1.5 G solar illumination, respectively (Supplementary Tables 4, 5), with statistical distribution confirming reproducibility (Supplementary Figs. 19, 20). Under optimal coupling conditions, the total output power of the integrated PV-TE hybrid system is also nearly equal to the sum of the maximum output powers of the PV and TE modules when operating independently at 313 K (Supplementary Fig. 21). Compared to the simulation results (Fig. 3c), the lower efficiencies observed in experiments (Fig. 3d) can be attributed to non-ideal practical factors, primarily a lower zT of the employed TE module (zT ≈ 0.9, compared to zT ≈ 1.0 in simulation) and the neglect of interfacial thermal resistance in the simulation model. Figure 3e compares the simulated and experimental efficiency of our PV-TE hybrid systems in this work with that of previously reported representative OSC-TE, PSC-TE, and inorganic PV-TE hybrid systems in literatures. Note our optimal OSC-TE and PSC-TE hybrid systems have achieved record-high efficiency of 43.16% and 50.28% at 313 Kunder AM 1.5 G solar illumination, respectively, significantly exceeding the efficiency of previously reported OSC-TE24,31, PSC-TE21,22,32,35,58, and inorganic PV-TE33,40,59,60 hybrid systems in literatures (Supplementary Table 6). Our PV-TE hybrid systems also show great advantages and competitiveness, compared with reported tandem PV devices, PV-TE hybrid systems with radiative cooling, and concentrated PV-TE hybrid systems (Supplementary Table 7). Furthermore, as indicated by the simulation in Fig. 3c, it is expected that with continued advancements in PV and TE technologies, the maximum achievable efficiency of PV-TE hybrid systems should be even better. To explore the application potential of PV-TE hybrid systems, we developed a flexible, large-area OSC-TE hybrid system, and integrated it into wearable clothing (Fig. 4a, Supplementary Figs. 22–24). The integrated system achieved a higher Voc, enabling direct operation of a pulse sensor for physiological signal monitoring, whereas the individual OSC could not power the sensor (Fig. 4b, Supplementary Fig. 25). Furthermore, the flexible OSC-TE hybrid system maintained stable performance after 1000 bending cycles, demonstrating its potential as a wearable power source (Supplementary Fig. 26). a Photograph of the flexible and wearable OSC-TE hybrid system. b Demonstration of the OSC-TE hybrid system driving a sensor for real-time pulse monitoring under AM 1.5 G solar illumination, while the individual OSC cannot achieve this. c, Potential applications in ocean environments. From the equator to the poles, seawater temperature decreases gradually from ~ 25 °C to ~ 0 °C or even below 0 °C, which ensures a large and stable temperature difference across TE modules to produce more electricity. d Potential applications in space. The sunny side temperature of the solar panel can reach 120 to 150 °C, while the dark side temperature can drop to −100 to −200 °C. This could create a significant ΔT across the TE module, which can enhance the output power and efficiency of PV-TE hybrid systems in space. Beyond wearable applications in daily life, our PV-TE hybrid systems might hold potential for deployment in some extreme environments. As shown in Fig. 3b, a lower cold-side temperature can increase the ΔT of the TE-module and thereby improve the efficiency of the PV-TE hybrid system. This prompts us to think about some possible practical scenarios. For instance, seawater serves as a massive constant-temperature source, and Antarctic and Arctic seawater is much cooler in particular. Under solar irradiation, a large ΔT across the TE module can be achieved when the PV-TE hybrid system floats at the seawater surface, providing a possible ideal application scenario for PV-TE hybrid systems (Fig. 4c). To estimate the power generation potential of the PV-TE hybrid system in marine environments, outdoor performance testing was conducted under sufficient sunlight and wind-free conditions, on one day in June (22 June 2025) and three days in September (7 – 9 September 2025) in Tianjin, China (39.1076° N, 117.1734° E). (Supplementary Fig. 27). The OSC-TE hybrid system achieved maximum average efficiencies of 35.03% in June and 29.16% in September, while the PSC-TE hybrid system reached 40.71% in June and 35.83% in September (Supplementary Fig. 28). The higher efficiency of the hybrid systems in June compared to September was attributed to higher environment temperature in June, which is consistent with our laboratory results (Fig. 3b). The outdoor maximum efficiency of the PV-TE hybrid system experienced an efficiency loss of approximately 9% in June and 14% in September relative to laboratory measurements under ideal steady-state conditions (Fig. 3d). Additionally, space provides abundant solar and thermal energy, with sunlight unobstructed by the atmosphere, enabling solar cells to operate at high efficiency. When integrated into a satellite, the PV-TE hybrid systems could experience a significant ΔT between the sunny and dark sides, enabling the TE module to generate substantial extra amounts of electricity (Fig. 4d). Thus, the greater potential demonstrated in this work indicates that PV-TE hybrid systems might be much more competitive than previously thought for many possible applications and even to support human activities in ocean and space environments in the future (Supplementary Note 8). It is important to note that these scenarios remain conceptual, and real-world deployment will require corrosion-resistant encapsulation, mechanical durability, and long-term validation. Further specific hurdles that must be addressed include the efficiency and stability limitations of OSCs and PSCs, large-area fabrication and integration of PV and TE modules, and performance fluctuations of the PV and TE units in dynamic environments. Cost consideration also remains a potential issue. Possible strategies to overcome these issues include material design and interfacial engineering56,61,62, optimizing the fabrication process for both the PV and TE modules63,64,65, and dynamic matching circuit design for the integrated systems66 (Supplementary Note 9). The PV-TE hybrid system currently exhibits a significantly higher LCOE than standalone PV and TE modules, but reducing the cost of TE modules and extending annual equivalent operating hours of the hybrid system could make the system a more cost-effective option in the future (Supplementary Note 10). It is also important to note that the disadvantage of its unfavorable LCOE might be tuned down for some special environments (e.g., in aerospace, offshore, or payload-limited environments), where higher power density is prioritized over cost per watt. In this work, through theoretical analysis and simulation based on a PV-TE Thermo-Electrical Coupling Model, we have found the requirements and conditions for such a PV-TE hybrid system to have maximum efficiency with energy lossless coupling output. Guided by the model above, we predicted that, using the best available PV modules and commercialized TE materials, the maximum efficiency of PV-TE hybrid systems could reach 60.34%. Following these theoretical guidelines, we have fabricated such a hybrid system and achieved the highest efficiency with energy lossless coupling output using solution-processed solar cells (OSCs and PSCs). The optimized OSC-TE hybrid systems achieved high efficiency of 34.85% and 43.16% at 298 K and 313 K under AM 1.5 G solar illumination, respectively. Likewise, the optimized PSC-TE hybrid systems exhibited remarkable efficiency of 42.03% and 50.28% at 298 K and 313 K under AM 1.5 G solar illumination, respectively. Although the results presented in this work demonstrate great potential for the practical application of PV-TE hybrid systems, further research remains necessary to advance toward real-world applications. These efforts include the use of more advanced solar cells and TE modules to enhance the performance and stability of PV-TE hybrid systems, further studies on large-area fabrication and integration of PV and TE modules, and exploration of system performance under varied application scenarios. These aspects are currently being pursued in our group. Donor polymer PM6 was purchased from Solarmer Materials, Inc. Acceptor molecule L8-BO was provided by Jiaxing Hyper Optoelectronic Technology Co., Ltd. Indium tin oxide (ITO) was purchased from Liaoning Advanced Election Technology. Zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles were synthesized the methods reported in literature67. The organic molecule named 2-(3-(dimethylamino)propyl)-1,3-dioxo-2,3-dihydro-1H-benzo[de]-isoquinoline-6,7-dicarboxylic acid (NMA) were synthesized using the methods reported in literature48. Tin(IV) oxide, 15% in H2O colloidal dispersion, was provided by Alfa Aesar. PbI2 (99.99%) was purchased from TCI. Cesium iodide (CsI, 99.999%) was purchased from Advanced Election Technology Co., Ltd. 2,2’,7,7’-Tetrakis[N,N-di(4-methoxyphenyl)amino]-9,9’-spiro-bifluorene (Spiro-OMeTAD) was provided by Woerjiming (Beijing) Technical Development Institute. Lithium bis (trifluoromethylsulfonyl)-imide (99.9%) was purchased from Sigma-Aldrich, 4-tertbutylpyridine (96.0%) was purchased from TCI. Poly[bis(4-phenyl)(2,4,6-trimethylphenyl)amine] (PTAA) were all purchased from Xi’an Polymer Light Technology in China. FAI, MACl, and ThPyI were synthesized using the methods reported in literatures68,69. The micro thermoelectric cells (model 1MD02-024-03, N = 24) were purchased from RMT Co., Ltd. Each thermoelectric cell, with dimensions of 2 mm × 2 mm × 0.9 mm, consists of 24 pairs of p-n junctions made from bismuth telluride (Bi2Te3) material with copper electrodes. The dimensions of a single Bi2Te3 thermoelectric leg were 0.2 mm × 0.2 mm × 0.3 mm, and the internal resistance and total Seebeck coefficient of each thermoelectric cell were approximately 3.32–3.5 Ω and 10.0 mV/K, respectively. The Bi2Te3 semiconductor grains used for fabricating large-area flexible thermoelectric devices were sourced from Changsha KunYong New Materials Co., Ltd, with dimensions of 1.0 mm × 1.0 mm × 2.0 mm. The OSCs were fabricated following our previous work with an inverted structure of ITO/ZnO/NMA/PM6:L8-BO/MoOx/Ag48. Firstly, the indium tin oxide (ITO)-coated glass substrates were cleaned by ultrasonic treatment in detergent, deionized water, acetone, and isopropyl alcohol under ultrasonication for 15 min each and subsequently dried by a nitrogen blow. Subsequently, a 15 nm thick layer of ZnO was deposited by spin-coating a ZnO precursor solution (prepared by dissolving 100 mg zinc acetate dihydrate and 28 µL ethanolamine in 4 mL of 2-methoxyethano) on the top of the ITO glass substrates at 3000 rpm for 40 s. After being baked at 200 °C in the air for 1.0 h, the ZnO-coated substrates were transferred into a nitrogen-filled glove box. For the hybrid ETL of ZnO/NMA, the NMA film was deposited upon ZnO film from its solution with a concentration of 0.4 mg/mL in methyl alcohol with ammonium hydroxide of 2% volume (to ensure good solubility) and then baked on a hot plate at 120 °C for 10 min in ambient atmosphere. For the active layer of PM6:L8-BO (weight ratio of 1:1.2), the PM6:L8-BO blend film was generated by spin-coating the blend solution at a spin-coating rate of 3,000 rpm upon the corresponding ETLs, and then was thermally annealed at 110 °C for 5 min. Then, MoOx (~2 nm) and Ag (~150 nm) were successively evaporated onto the active layer through a shadow mask. The effective area for the devices was 0.04–0.36 cm2 (step: 0.04 cm2), determined using an optical profilometer. The PSCs were fabricated according to our previous work49. The ITO substrate was washed sequentially with distilled water, acetone, and isopropanol. Before use, the ITO was cleaned with ultraviolet ozone for 20 min. The SnO2 electron transport layer (2.5 wt%, diluted by water) was coated on the ITO substrate and annealed in air at 170 °C for 30 minutes. After cooling to room temperature, the substrate was treated with ultraviolet ozone for 10 minutes before spin-coating the perovskite solution. Usually, 1.5 M PbI2 with 2 mol % CsI was dissolved in DMF/DMSO (v/v, 94/6), and then stirred at 70 °C for 4 hours. The PbI2 solution was then deposited by spin coating at 1500 rpm for 30 seconds, dried at 70 °C for 1 minute, and then cooled to room temperature. A solution of 2D spacer (2 mg/mL) in isopropanol (IPA) was spin-coated on the PbI2 film at a spin rate of 2000 rpm for 30 seconds, and annealed at 70 °C for 30 seconds. After cooling to room temperature, a solution of FAI/MACl (90:9 mg mL−1) in IPA was spin-coated on top of the PbI2 layer at a rotation speed of 2000 rpm for 35 seconds, followed by thermal annealing at 160 °C for 12 min in the air (relative humidity about 65%). After perovskite formation, the samples were transferred to a nitrogen-filled glove box for further processing. For the passivation layer, the ThPyI solution was dissolved in IPA with 4 mg/mL and spin-coated onto the perovskite surface at a spin rate of 5,000 rpm, without any further processing. Then, spin-coated the Spiro-OMeTAD solution (80 mg of Spiro-OMeTAD, 30 µL of 4-tert-butylpyridine and 35 µL of lithium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)-imide (Li-TFSI, 260 mg/mL in acetonitrile) in 1 mL of chlorobenzene) on the perovskite layer with 6000 rpm for 30 seconds. For the thermal stability of devices, 20 mg PTAA was dissolved in 1 mL toluene, then 10 μL Li-TFSI (260 mg/ml in acetonitrile) and 10 μL 4-tert-butylpyridine were added. The PTAA solution was spin-coated on the surface of the perovskite layer at 2000 rpm for 30 s. Finally, a 12 nm MoO3 layer and 100 nm Ag layer were deposited by thermal evaporation under a pressure of 1.0 × 10−4 Pa. The effective area for the devices was 0.04–0.36 cm2 (step: 0.04 cm2), determined using an optical profilometer. In the PV-TE hybrid systems, the photovoltaic (PV) solar cells (OSCs and PSCs) parallel module was connected in series with the thermoelectric (TE) module. All TE cell units were connected in series in the TE module. The TE electrodes were soldered with copper wires, while the electrodes of the solar cells were connected to copper wires using conductive silver paste. Subsequently, different electrodes were interconnected via copper wires. Initially, for optimal thermal energy utilization, a 0.04 cm2 PV-TE hybrid system with a single PV and multiple TE cells was constructed. The PV solar cell and each TE cell have an equal area of 0.04 cm2. In the PV-TE hybrid systems, the TE cells were attached to the bottom of the PV cell using a phase change thermal interface material (PCM). When multiple TE cells were employed, they were added one by one in the stack using the PCM (Supplementary Fig. 7). The PCM (PTM7950 series from Honeywell Co., Ltd.), with a thickness of 0.2 mm and a thermal conductivity of ~8.5 W/mK, can effectively fill interfacial gaps and reduces thermal contact resistance. Polished brass plates (5 mm × 5 mm) were welded to both sides of each TE cell (2 mm × 2 mm × 0.9 mm) to homogenize the temperature distribution and limit adverse thermal radiative losses. To achieve current matching, parallel modules of OSCs and PSCs with areas ranging from 0.04 to 0.36 cm2 were fabricated (Supplementary Fig. 10). Then multiple TE units were employed in the xy-plane to match the effective area of the PV module. For each layer, the total area of the TE cells was equal to the effective area of the PV module. In the z-plane, the TE cells were stacked layer by layer using the PCM. The fabrication of a flexible large-area OSC module was performed following a previously reported procedure70. The flexible large-area OSC module was fabricated by applying an inverted architecture of PET/ITO/ZnO/NMA/active layer/MoOx/Ag. ITO-coated PET substrate was ultrasonically treated in detergent, deionized water, acetone, and isopropyl alcohol in sequence for 15 min, followed by blowing dry using argon gas. Afterward, the ZnO layer was blade-coated on the pre-cleaned ITO-coated glass at 50 °C in air with a coating velocity of 10 mm/s and a blade-substrate gap of 200 μm, followed by annealing at 120 °C for 15 mins in atmospheric air. After that, a thin film of NMA was blade-coated on ZnO in the air with a coating velocity of 10 mm/s and a blade-substrate gap of 150 μm. PM6: BTP-BO-4CI (1:1.2, D: 9 mg/mL) in chlorobenzene with 0.3 vol% 1,8-diiodooctane (DIO) was blade-coated at 60 °C with a coating velocity of 20 mm/s and a blade-substrate gap of 400 μm in air. Finally, MoOx (~ 6 nm) and Ag (~150 nm) were successively evaporated onto the active layer through a shadow mask (2 × 10−4 Pa). The schematics of the large-area module consisting of four sub-cells connected in series using the methods reported in literature71. The photograph of the flexible large-area OSC module with a 14.4 cm2 effective area is shown in Supplementary Fig. 22. The dimensions of the p-type and n-type thermoelectric legs based on bismuth telluride materials are 1.0 mm × 1.0 mm × 2.0 mm. An array comprising multiple p-n junction pairs, thermally in parallel and electrically in series, was fabricated with dimensions of 55 mm × 55 mm. Copper wires were used as electrodes to connect different legs. The assembled thermoelectric array was then cast using PDMS, which was prepared by mixing PDMS precursor with curing agent at a mass ratio of 10:1. The embedded array was subsequently cured in an oven at 80 °C for 4 h. Finally, a 1.5 mm-thick PDMS composite layer, containing BN and Al2O3 to enhance thermal conductivity, was cast and cured on both sides of the thermoelectric array (Supplementary Fig. 23). The PDMS/BN/Al2O3/DM fabrics were prepared using a 3D extrusion process and a woven process (Supplementary Fig. 24a, b). Initially, the PDMS precursor and curing agent were mixed at a mass ratio of 10:1. Subsequently, BN (500 nm), Al2O3 (50 nm), and DM (n-Docosane microcapsule) were incorporated into the PDMS mixture in a container. Then, the mixture was placed in a vacuum mixer for 5 minutes at room temperature to achieve a homogeneous phase. The resulting PDMS/BN/Al2O3/DM mixture was transferred to a syringe, extruded, and subsequently cured at 80 °C for 4 h. The fabricated composite fibers had a diameter of 0.6 mm. Finally, the fibers were woven into a fabric, which was integrated into clothing for cooling and heat dissipation applications in flexible PV-TE hybrid devices. The current density-voltage (J-V) characteristics of PV-TE hybrid systems were obtained using a Keithley 2400 source measure unit, the scan speed and dwell times of the J-V curves were fixed at 0.02 V s−1 and 20 ms, respectively. The photocurrent was measured under AM 1.5 G illumination using an SS-X50 solar simulator, calibrated with a standard Si solar cell (Enli Technology CO., Ltd., Taiwan, and calibrated report can be traced to NREL). The thermoelectric signals were obtained using a Keithley 2400 source measure unit. Temperature variation and distribution in this work were recorded through a thermocouple, and the temperature can be read out in real-time. The photostability testing was conducted following the ISOS-L-1 protocol. The standalone PV (OSC and PSC) and the PV-TE hybrid system (OSC-TE and PSC-TE) were encapsulated and tested under continuous 1-sun LED illumination at the open-circuit state in ambient air (20–30 °C, 40–60% RH). 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These authors contributed equally: Zhanzhao Yin, Ding Zhang. State Key Laboratory of Elemento-Organic Chemistry, Frontiers Science Center for New Organic Matter, Nankai University, Tianjin, China Zhanzhao Yin, Longyu Li, Yuping Gao, Yongsheng Liu, Xiangjian Wan & Yongsheng Chen Key Laboratory of Functional Polymer Materials, Institute of Polymer Chemistry, College of Chemistry, Nankai University, Tianjin, China Zhanzhao Yin, Longyu Li, Yuping Gao, Yongsheng Liu, Xiangjian Wan & Yongsheng Chen School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin, China Ding Zhang & Rujun Ma Search author on:PubMedGoogle Scholar Search author on:PubMedGoogle Scholar Search author on:PubMedGoogle Scholar Search author on:PubMedGoogle Scholar Search author on:PubMedGoogle Scholar Search author on:PubMedGoogle Scholar Search author on:PubMedGoogle Scholar Search author on:PubMedGoogle Scholar Z.Y. and D.Z. contributed equally to this work. Y.C. and R.M. conceived and designed the project. Z.Y., D.Z., L.L., and Y.G. performed the device fabrication. Z.Y. and D.Z. carried out the performance measurements and simulation calculations. Y.C., R.M., Z.Y., D.Z., Y.L., and X.W. analyzed all experimental and simulated data. Z.Y. and D.Z. prepared the manuscript under the supervision of Y.C. and R.M. All the authors contributed to the revision and comments to the manuscript. Correspondence to Rujun Ma or Yongsheng Chen. The authors declare no competing interests. Nature Communications thanks Lin Jiang, and the other, anonymous, reviewer(s) for their contribution to the peer review of this work. A peer review file is available. Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. 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To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/. Reprints and permissions Yin, Z., Zhang, D., Li, L. et al. Solution-processed photovoltaic and thermoelectric hybrid systems with efficiency exceeding 50%. Nat Commun17, 4785 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-026-71389-w Download citation Received: Accepted: Published: Version of record: DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-026-71389-w Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content: Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.
As utility-scale solar, wind and battery projects reshape the way electricity is generated and stored, households have quietly delivered a recent victory with the Cheaper Home Batteries Program delivering 10.7 GWh of storage to the grid. The years that Australia has devoted to solving the supply side of the energy transition has finally paid off at a time when the world is battling a global oil crisis that is speeding up the pace of electrification. This has been evidenced by how quickly Australian consumers are turning their attention towards electrification. In March, close to 16,000 electric vehicles were sold in Australia and this has increased to one in six vehicles that were sold in April that were fully electric. With more households using EVs, installing home batteries or reducing their reliance on gas appliances, the predictable and stable electricity demand profiles are increasingly more dynamic with a shift towards more concentrated demand. The same pattern from commercial and industrial businesses is only starting to emerge. Businesses facing the shock of rising diesel and fuel costs will accelerate their investments in transport fleet electrification and charging infrastructure, energy storage and industrial electrification to reduce their exposure to the global fuel market. At the same time as electricity demand grows with existing energy consumers, data centres that are being planned are placing increasing pressure on the grid. While the global oil crisis has accelerated demand, Australia’s electricity networks were not designed to support the simultaneous growth in EV charging, consumer energy resources and the always-on data centre loads. Data to support investment decisions in high-voltage networks and greater visibility of low-voltage networks are both critical if DNSPs are to support the growth of electrification. In many cases, DNSPs do not have full visibility or the capability to predict or manage changing demand conditions at the edge of the grid in real-time. Without visibility, electrification will result in higher network costs and reliability challenges that energy consumers will ultimately have to pay for. But this does not have to be the case if technologies such as low-voltage network monitoring, predictive fault detection and data can be used to support network infrastructure investments. Australia spent decades solving generation capacity and it would need to look at investments in transmission, distribution and visibility of the grid edge as electrification picks up pace. Instead of risking overbuilding its grid infrastructure in some locations while underinvesting in others, the age of electrification will ultimately be defined less by how much renewable energy capacity Australia delivers but more by how intelligently we can manage demand once millions of devices and connections start activating the grid simultaneously. Author: Ana Duran, Product Manager, EA Technology Comments Please login to comment Thursday, July 9, 2026 11:00 am – 12:30 pm CEST, Berlin, Paris, Madrid Thursday, June 18, 2026 2:00 pm – 3:00 pm CEST, Berlin, Paris, Madrid Be part of the high-level European conference on solar and energy storage, exploring bankable BESS projects, warranties, and energy management for residential and C&I sectors Monday, June 1, 2026 5:30 pm – 6:30 pm CEST, Berlin, Madrid, Paris Wednesday, June 3, 2026 4:00 pm – 5:00 pm CEST, Berlin, Paris, Madrid Tuesday, June 9, 2026 11:00 am – 12:00 pm CEST, Berlin, Paris, Madrid Thursday, June 11, 2026 5:00 pm – 6:00 pm CEST, Berlin, Paris, Madrid Tuesday, June 16, 2026 10:00 am – 11:00 am CEST, Berlin, Paris, Madrid Wednesday, June 10, 2026 3:00 pm – 4:00 pm CEST, Berlin, Paris, Madrid Friday, June 12, 2026 2:00 pm – 3:00 pm CEST, Berlin, Paris, Madrid Monday, June 15, 2026 9:30 am – 10:30 am CEST, Berlin, Paris, Madrid Tuesday, June 16, 2026 6 am – 7:00 am CEST, Berlin The new pv magazine Global May issue is now available! Mountains to climb Available in print and digital formats. Entries open in seven categories: Modules, Inverters, BoS, BESS, Manufacturing, Sustainability, Projects. April 01 – August 31, 2026 A two-day conference in Austin, Texas, bringing together leaders in US solar manufacturing, equipment specification, and factory execution. Saudi Arabia is accelerating its clean energy transition—join the SunRise Arabia Clean Energy Conference 2026 in Riyadh to explore how solar PV and energy storage are powering its digital economy. Showcase your brand across all our platforms: from 13 websites in 7 languages to our magazines, daily newsletters, industry events and more. Reach your audience the right way! We are participating in Intersolar 2026 again this year! Visit us at our Booth Hall 2 A2.250 to discuss the latest trends within the photovoltaic industry with the pv magazine team. June 23-25, 2026 | MUNICH, GERMANY
Mike Gallagher at Square Roots Farm in Lanesborough has wanted to create shade for his cows during the hot summer months. Raised solar panels in the field where his livestock roam, may just be the solution he is looking for. Square Roots Farm owner Michael Gallagher collects eggs from the nesting boxes of his laying hens at the farm in Lanesborough. He hopes that a solar array will give comfort to his cows and chickens during the heat of the summer. The Square Roots Farm property includes an uninsulated brick house dating to 1810 with a single bathroom. It’s heated by three wood stoves. A cow and a calf in a field at Square Roots Farm in Lanesborough. A proposed 36-acre solar array on the farm would provide shelter from the hot sun for the animals.
Community Voices Editor Mike Gallagher at Square Roots Farm in Lanesborough has wanted to create shade for his cows during the hot summer months. Raised solar panels in the field where his livestock roam, may just be the solution he is looking for. Square Roots Farm owner Michael Gallagher collects eggs from the nesting boxes of his laying hens at the farm in Lanesborough. He hopes that a solar array will give comfort to his cows and chickens during the heat of the summer. The Square Roots Farm property includes an uninsulated brick house dating to 1810 with a single bathroom. It’s heated by three wood stoves. A cow and a calf in a field at Square Roots Farm in Lanesborough. A proposed 36-acre solar array on the farm would provide shelter from the hot sun for the animals. LANESBOROUGH — For years, Square Roots Farm co-owner Michael Gallagher has been trying to find a way to give his cows a bit of relief from the summer sun. He thought about planting trees, but it would take years for them to grow large enough to produce significant shade. Turns out, his answer comes directly from the sun. Now, Gallagher is pairing up with renewable energy developer BlueWave Energy to install a 10-foot-high solar array spaced widely apart on two fields that will produce shade for his cows. The array — on 36.6 acres — will add 5.3 megawatts to the grid, enough electricity to power about 750 homes for a year. It will have tiltable cells to follow the sun as it changes angle during the day. While solar arrays are often seen as a competing use for farmland, in an era of hotter summers, Gallagher hopes this solar array will prolong the growing season for forage and keep his cows, chickens and turkeys in comfort during the summer. It also will generate revenue, which will help stabilize Gallagher’s business operation. It’s is a project that has been two years in the making already and likely won’t start producing electricity for another two years. Local and state permitting is just beginning. “We’re going to move the cows the same way we do now,” Gallagher told the Conservation Commission last month. “They’ll move through one chunk, and move through the next chunk. They’ll sit under the solar panels when it’s really hot, and they’ll be fine.” Gallagher and his wife, Ashley Amsden, installed a small solar array at their house a few years. Since then, he’s only had to pay for electricity for their home a couple months. That first step put renewable energy on his landscape. “We’re in a place where we’re really at the forefront of things, which is super interesting and a little bit scary,” he said. “I am much more comfortable often in the second wave of adopting something. I want to see somebody else make it work, and then I want to copy it and make it better. But we are really much more towards the front of this.” To investigate this concept, Gallagher took a ride to Palmer, where BlueWave has a similar installation. Gallagher could imagine the concept working for him. Then he had some persuading to do — both with BlueWave and with a local land trust. Gallagher and Amsden bought their 185-acre farm from Berkshire Natural Resources Council in 2012 for $160,000. It included an uninsulated brick house dating to 1810 with a single bathroom. It’s heated by three wood stoves. The price was depressed partly because of an Agricultural Preservation Restriction on 182 acres that Berkshire Natural Resources Council placed on the property and still owns. An Agricultural Preservation Restriction is a permanent deed restriction limiting use of the land to farming. BlueWave wasn’t interested in touching a property with such a restriction, but Gallagher thought the fact that his was privately held might make a difference. So, he approached Doug Brown, director of stewardship at Berkshire Natural Resources Council, about whether the provisions of the 1997 Agricultural Preservation Restriction might allow for this so-called dual use or agrivoltaic solar array. “The most impactful was hearing from Michael himself,” Brown said. He came to understand the value of the shade for both the forage and the livestock. Still, “It was very tricky,” Brown said. “We really had to look at it through the lens of the APR and what that language explicitly required of us and requires of the landowner.” Brown acknowledged that people have strong opinions about solar arrays — both positive and negative — and about their visual impact on the landscape. “We knew that making a decision in favor of this could be challenging for people in our community, in understanding why this is something that we were able to support in this setting,” he said. “We also knew that if we said no to this, it would have real impacts on the viability of Michael and Ashley’s farm operation and their future as stewards of that property.” The certificate of approval on file at Berkshire North Registry of Deeds cites several benefits including shade for animals and crops, reduction in water loss, and giving the farmer “a new revenue stream from solar energy while continuing agricultural production, reducing financial risk.” BlueWave Energy is all in. Under the name Pettibone Brook, BlueWave hired Weston & Sampson to prepare a 156-page notice of intent for the Conservation Commission. A Weston & Sampson engineer, two BlueWave employees and the consulting wetland scientist who mapped the property attended the recent meeting. The Conservation Commission was expected to issue its decision this month pending a report from a state agency. BlueWave has signed two agreements with Gallagher and Amsden: the first to lease the land for the solar cells, mechanicals and a single storage battery; the second for agricultural services. Both of these documents are necessary to win incentives under the Solar Massachusetts Renewable Target program. Eversource hasn’t yet signed an agreement with BlueWave to run three-phase power to the farm from Summer Street and to accept the energy, but is expected to. An Eversource spokeswoman deferred comment to the developer. BlueWave has 11 projects operating or under construction in Massachusetts. Its first agrivoltaic project went online in 2021. “We have seen firsthand the benefits this approach provides to farmers, the land, and the broader energy system, and we continue to expand our portfolio of dual-use projects,” said Joel Lindsey, vice president of project development at BlueWave, in an email. “Mike is a hardworking farmer that amplifies the good word of local agriculture and supplies his surrounding communities with pasture-raised meat and eggs. “He’s innovative and seeks to diversify the farm,” Llndsey continued. “He’s determined to succeed (and thrive) at one of today’s prevalent challenges: owning a family farm in Massachusetts. We are excited to continue working with him.” Massachusetts expanded incentives for solar systems on farms in 2022. There are now 12 in operation across the state generating 16 megawatts, or enough electricity to power 2,700 homes. More than 10 similar systems are under development and three are in early phases. Gallagher said the constant income stream over the 20-year lease will be helpful. He and Amsden might insulate the attic or add a second bathroom to their home before their children become teenagers. Tthey’re also considering reinvesting in the farm. “There are lots of things on the farm that are good enough but could definitely work better and smoothly for us,” he said. “But the biggest thing about it is, it sort of takes a little bit off of this big, ‘what if’ worry that sometimes keeps us up at night. What if we get avian flu? What if the tractor catches fire tomorrow?“ At the end of the lease, the plan would be to either decommission the solar array or to renew it — if it makes sense at the time. In the meantime, Berkshire Natural Resources Council has purchased a neighboring parcel to the northwest and holds an easement on Square Roots Farm to site a trail from the ridge line to Cheshire Reservoir across the road. “We’re going to be investing in that trail development in the next few years, likely around the same time that, if permitted, this development moves forward,” Brown said of Berkshire Natural Resources Council. “We hope to continue to work with Michael and Ashley and the developer to create interpretive information that helps the way the public really understand the benefits of these systems in agricultural settings.” Gallagher can imagine what Square Roots will look like once the solar array is up and running. “We already get people who stop on the side of the road because they want to take pictures of the cows and the chickens,” he said. “And I hope we get people who are still doing the same thing, and they say, ‘Look at all the cows under the solar panels. Look how chill they are.’” Quality local journalism needs your support Access this story and all of our stories with 24/7 unlimited access. Subscribe today. Cancel anytime. Subscriber Sign In | Return Home Jane Kaufman is Community Voices Editor at The Berkshire Eagle. She can be reached at jkaufman@berkshireeagle.com or 413-496-6125. We have seen firsthand the benefits this approach provides to farmers, the land, and the broader energy system. Joel Lindsey, BlueWave Energy vice president of project development It would essentially operate as a small power plant for four hours when fully charged, with construction starting at the end of 2028 or the beginning of 2029 and operation beginning about a year later. A map showing solar energy possibilities across the state shows high potential for solar farms in Berkshire County. With Massachusetts clean energy goals setting net-zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050 and land cheaper in this part of the state, Berkshire farms and fields are vulnerable to solar development. Roughly a dozen or so gathered at Steeple City Social to hear panelists talk about growing, raising, and selling food locally. Feeding the community gets brought up often around the Thanksgiving holiday, and the panelists discussed how individuals and businesses can help feed others not just now, but year-round. A 178-acre parcel on the east side of Route 7 has been sold to Berkshire Natural Resources Council, which plans to cut a hiking trail through to the Farnams Hill ridgeline near the Cheshire town line and eventually link to the Ashuwillticook Rail Trail. Community Voices Editor CrossFit Pittsfield has relocated from East Street to a newly renovated, 5,100-square-foot facility at 113 West St. The move gives the growing fitness center more space and visibility, as well as opportunities to expand its class offerings while continuing to serve its community-focused membership. Lamacchia Realty is expanding in the Berkshires with the acquisition of Steepleview Realty. The cafe hosted a soft opening Friday and will serve classic American breakfast and lunch options, coffee, ice cream and eventually owner Stephanie Melito’s homemade fudge. The new Canna Provisions storefront at 1021 South St., which opened Thursday, is the company’s third location. At Hilltop Orchards, the damage from a recent overnight freeze is clear: Tiny seeds inside the embryonic fruit should be green; freeze damage left some brown. After 18 years of retreats, networking sessions, workshops and community conversations, the free Berkshires-based Dulye Leadership Experience came to an end on Friday. {{summary}} Your browser is out of date and potentially vulnerable to security risks. We recommend switching to one of the following browsers: Get up-to-the-minute news sent straight to your device.
By: Luis Reyes Published: Jun 7, at 6:30am ET Owning a boat usually means signing up for a lifetime of fuel bills, marina fees, and an engine that wants attention every few months. That is the deal almost everyone accepts before they ever cast off. A Finnish builder named Lukas Sjoman wanted none of it, so he spent roughly 200 days in a shed turning plywood, glass fibre and off-the-shelf solar panels into an 11-meter explorer yacht that runs on sunlight alone. His pitch is simple: a boat designed to, in theory, run forever. And this spring he spent about $1,900 on a battery upgrade to push it even farther without burning a single drop of fuel. The boat is called Helios 11, and if you have watched any of it come together on his True North Yachts channel. Blacked-out, narrow, stripped of anything that is not holding the thing together. That austerity is the entire point. Every kilogram Sjoman did not add is a kilogram the sun does not have to move, and that math is what separates a slogan about running forever from a boat that actually crosses water. It is also one of the more extreme attempts yet to put electric propulsion on the water, except this one was built by one person for less than the price of a mid-size sedan. The upgrade itself is almost boring, which is sort of the flex. Sjoman added two more 48V 100-amp battery packs, bringing roughly 22 kilowatt-hours of usable storage to the solar propulsion system, according to the build he has documented publicly. Combined with what the roof array feeds in, the whole setup tops out near 37 kilowatt-hours of energy on a good day. The roof itself generates somewhere around 15 kilowatt-hours in typical conditions, which is what keeps the batteries topped up while the boat is moving, instead of needing a plug once the sun goes down. He bolted the new packs low, beneath the waterline, and that placement does double duty. It adds capacity, and it drops the center of gravity to counter the weight of all those panels sitting up on the roof. He could have chased a better power-to-weight ratio with flexible CIGS panels, but those yield less per square meter and cost more, so he stuck with cheaper rigid panels and kept the whole battery job inside that $1,900 budget. The hull is also built to self-right, which matters a lot more on a light boat than on a heavy one. The amenities are the part that turns a science project into a home. There is an electric stove, a lightweight fridge, and a flushable toilet on board, and Sjoman has talked about adding rainwater harvesting, water filtration, and Starlink so the boat can stay away from a marina for weeks at a time. It is a 1.5-ton apartment that happens to float and never visits a gas dock. This is where the phrase “runs forever” needs an asterisk, because the number moves depending on the sky. On a standard 24-hour run, Sjoman says the upgraded Helios 11 covers about 100 nautical miles without touching fuel. On a bright summer day with the auxiliary sail up, that can stretch toward 150. Push it into rougher water with the sun behind clouds and the daily figure drops closer to 40. None of that is a knock on the boat. It is just what solar range looks like when your fuel tank is the weather. The cruising speed sits in a useful band too, roughly 5 to 5.5 knots, which is where the electric motor runs most efficiently. Go faster and you drain the batteries; go slower and you are barely moving. Sjoman has settled into that efficient cruise the way a hypermiler settles into 55 on the highway, except his reward is a boat that quietly refills itself once the sun comes back up. No spam. Unsubscribe anytime. Privacy policy (opens in new window) Figures from Sjoman’s publicly documented Helios 11 build. Range varies with sun and sea state. A prototype that only performs in flat water is a pond toy, so Sjoman took the Helios 11 out into 20 to 25 knot winds along the Mediterranean coast, with no backup engine and no generator on board. Just solar, the small sail, and an anchor if everything went sideways. That is either confidence or a dare, and it mostly paid off. Even punching into a headwind north of 20 knots, the boat held a cruising speed between 6 and 6.7 knots while pulling around 3,500 to 4,000 watts, with the panels still feeding in 1,200 to 1,500 watts depending on cloud cover. The standout moment from his testing is that the Helios reportedly overtook a sailboat three times its size. Sailboats live and die by the wind. A solar-electric hull does not care whether the wind is cooperating, and Sjoman says that even at zero percent battery his panels alone held the boat at 6.5 knots in daylight. He has also been candid that the build is not finished and that he got at least one design choice wrong along the way, which is more honesty than most people building a “perfect” machine on camera will give you. You can watch him narrate the whole thing, including the slow move south toward France and Spain, in his own on-the-water updates. The twist is that the energy side is no longer the hard part. Sjoman has said the upgrade was not about fixing a limitation, just adding capacity he is happy to have on board. The real constraint on a tiny solar yacht is comfort and seaworthiness, because a light hull with minimal ballast starts to roll the moment conditions turn, and a person can only take so much of that before a long crossing stops being fun. That tracks with what people who study this for a living will tell you. Saman Gorji, who directs the Centre for Smart Power and Energy Research at Deakin University, has noted that solar-plus-battery setups are already viable for some marine uses, especially shorter and more predictable routes, while longer continuous-duty trips are better served by hybrid systems that pair batteries with another clean source. That is roughly the logic behind the largest electric ferries now in service, and behind clean-propulsion experiments at the luxury end like the hydrogen fuel-cell superyacht that chases the same fuel-free goal by a completely different route. Solar alone works beautifully at Helios scale. It gets harder the bigger and faster you go. Sjoman is not shy about the comparison. He has pointed out that some people have already crossed the Atlantic on solar power alone, and that his own boat could manage a similar run at an average of around 5 knots if he wanted to. The thing stopping him is not the sun. It is whether a 36-foot hull is comfortable enough to live in for weeks. So the next Helios is going to be bigger. Sjoman has said a version roughly 50 percent larger would turn an ocean crossing from a real question into something close to easy, and his build-plans archive already lays out larger designs, from a stretched explorer monohull to multihull concepts, all aimed at the same brief: a boat that owes the fuel pump nothing. The goal was never really this specific boat. It was proving that one person, in a shed, with hardware anyone can order online, can build something that moves across the planet on sunlight and skips the marine industry’s usual tolls. For now the Helios 11 is still a prototype, still a work in progress, still occasionally getting a detail wrong in public. It is also quietly out-running boats that cost ten times as much, and the only fuel it has touched so far is sunlight. What do you think? Luis Reyes · May 26, 2026 Luis Reyes · May 31, 2026 Dave McQuilling · May 21, 2026 Luis Reyes · Jun 1, 2026 Dave McQuilling · May 11, 2026 Olivia Richman · Jun 6, 2026 Luis Reyes · Jun 7, 2026 Luis Reyes · Jun 7, 2026 Olivia Richman · Jun 6, 2026 Olivia Richman · Jun 6, 2026 Luis Reyes · Jun 6, 2026 Autonotion is the English-language automotive editorial by Autonocion.com — car news, reviews, and industry analysis for American readers. Other links Company Subscribe Get the latest car news in your inbox: By submitting your email you allow autonocion.com to send you news or promotions. More info
Europe Solar PV Market Size, Share, Trends, & Growth Forecast Report Segmented By Technology (Crystalline Silicon, Thin Film, and Others), Grid Type (On-grid, and Off-grid), Installation (Ground Mounted, Rooftop, and Others), Application (Residential, Non-Residential, and Utilities), Country (UK, France, Spain, Germany, Italy, Russia, Sweden, Denmark, Switzerland, Netherlands, Turkey, Czech Republic & Rest of Europe), Industry Analysis From 2026 to 2034 The Europe solar PV market was valued at USD 148.20 billion in 2025. The European is estimated to reach USD 1120.98 billion by 2034 from USD 185.56 billion in 2026, rising at a CAGR of 25.21% from 2026 to 2034. The Europe solar photovoltaic (PV) market incorporates the production, distribution, and utilization of solar energy systems that convert sunlight directly into electricity across European countries. This market has evolved significantly over the past two decades, transitioning from a niche renewable source to a central pillar in the continent’s energy transition strategy. Also, the integration of PV technology is supported by stringent climate targets, decreasing installation costs, and growing public awareness regarding sustainable energy solutions. Germany remains the dominant player, followed by Spain, the Netherlands, and Poland, each experiencing robust growth due to favorable policy frameworks and investment incentives. As of 2023, the cumulative installed solar PV capacity in Europe exceeded 200 gigawatts (GW), reflecting an annual increase of more than 15%, as reported by SolarPower Europe. The market includes utility-scale projects, commercial rooftop installations, and residential solar systems, supported by innovations such as bifacial modules and advanced inverters. A main development has been the increasing decentralization of energy generation, enabling households and businesses to become prosumers—both producers and consumers of electricity. In addition, grid modernization efforts and digital monitoring tools have enhanced system efficiency and reliability. One of the most influential drivers of the Europe Solar PV market is the strong regulatory support and comprehensive policy frameworks implemented by national governments and the European Union. The European Green Deal, launched in 2019, sets a legally binding target of climate neutrality by 2050, compelling member states to accelerate their renewable energy deployment. Under the Renewable Energy Directive (RED III), the EU aims to source at least 42.5% of its final energy consumption from renewables by 2030, with solar PV expected to play a pivotal role. Countries like Spain and Poland have introduced competitive auctions and feed-in premium schemes to attract private investments, resulting in rapid capacity additions. Germany’s Renewable Energy Sources Act (EEG) was amended in 2023 to fast-track solar project approvals, aiming for 215 GW of installed PV capacity by 2030. These regulatory interventions have not only reduced bureaucratic delays but also improved investor confidence. A significant driver fueling the expansion of the Europe Solar PV market is the sustained decline in technology costs coupled with advancements in solar panel efficiency. Over the past decade, the cost of photovoltaic modules has dropped dramatically, making solar energy increasingly accessible to both large-scale developers and individual consumers. This reduction has been attributed to economies of scale, manufacturing innovations, and increased competition among suppliers. Technological progress has also played a crucial role in enhancing performance. Modern monocrystalline PERC (Passivated Emitter and Rear Contact) modules now achieve efficiencies exceeding 22%, compared to around 15% for conventional polycrystalline panels a decade ago. Bifacial modules, which capture sunlight on both sides, are gaining traction across utility-scale projects in countries like the Netherlands and Sweden, boosting energy yield. These cost reductions and efficiency improvements have translated into higher return on investment (ROI) for developers and faster payback periods for end-users. Consequently, demand for solar installations has surged, particularly in residential and commercial segments where self-consumption models are becoming increasingly viable. Despite its rapid growth, the Europe Solar PV market faces significant challenges stemming from supply chain vulnerabilities and heavy reliance on imported raw materials and components. A majority of critical PV inputs—including polysilicon, wafers, cells, and modules—are sourced from China, which dominates global production. This overreliance became starkly evident during the pandemic and subsequent global supply chain disruptions, which led to extended lead times and volatile pricing. In 2022, freight costs surged significantly compared to pre-pandemic levels, while polysilicon prices reached record highs, pushing up overall system costs. Although the situation stabilized somewhat in 2023, uncertainties persist, particularly concerning trade restrictions and customs inspections targeting Chinese imports. Efforts to localize manufacturing, such as the European Solar Manufacturing Council’s initiative to build gigawatt-scale factories, remain in early stages and lack sufficient funding to offset near-term risks. Another critical restraint affecting the Europe Solar PV market is the challenge of integrating large volumes of intermittent solar power into aging grid infrastructure. While solar PV capacity has expanded rapidly, grid modernization efforts have lagged behind, leading to congestion, curtailment, and inefficiencies. Many European countries inherited centralized grid systems designed for conventional fossil fuel-based generation, which struggle to accommodate decentralized and variable renewable sources. According to ENTSO-E (European Network of Transmission System Operators for Electricity), grid congestion issues led to the curtailment of over 4 terawatt-hours (TWh) of renewable energy in 2022, primarily in Germany, Spain, and Italy. Curtailment occurs when excess solar generation cannot be transmitted due to insufficient interconnection capacity or storage availability. Moreover, outdated distribution networks in rural and suburban areas cannot often handle bidirectional power flows from distributed solar installations. Investments in smart grids, battery storage, and cross-border interconnectors are progressing, but at a slower pace than required. An emerging opportunity for the Europe Solar PV market lies in the rapid proliferation of corporate power purchase agreements (PPAs), which enable businesses to procure renewable energy directly from developers. These long-term contracts offer companies stable electricity pricing while providing developers with predictable revenue streams, fostering mutual benefits. According to BloombergNEF, corporate PPA activity in Europe reached a record 7.2 gigawatts (GW) in 2023, representing a major increase compared to the previous year. Scandinavia, the Iberian Peninsula, and the Benelux region have emerged as hotspots for corporate PPAs, driven by high solar irradiation, favorable regulatory environments, and ambitious sustainability goals among multinational corporations. For instance, Google, Microsoft, and Amazon have collectively signed over 3 GW of renewable energy contracts in Europe, predominantly backed by solar PV projects. Moreover, the European Commission’s push for corporate decarbonization under the Corporate Sustainability Reporting Directive (CSRD) is incentivizing more businesses to adopt clean energy sourcing strategies. Floating photovoltaic (FPV) systems represent a promising opportunity for the European solar PV market, particularly in land-constrained regions and water-rich countries. FPV involves installing solar panels on floating structures atop reservoirs, lakes, and coastal waters, offering dual benefits of land conservation and enhanced efficiency due to the cooling effect of water. According to the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), Europe accounted for over 1.5 gigawatts (GW) of installed floating solar capacity by mid-2023, with active deployments in France, the Netherlands, Portugal, and Germany. As per DNV GL, floating solar can achieve higher energy yields compared to land-based systems, owing to reduced dust accumulation and lower operating temperatures. In addition to efficiency gains, FPV supports grid stability by utilizing existing hydropower infrastructure, particularly in Southern Europe. A persistent challenge hindering the European solar PV market is the complexity and sluggishness of permitting processes for new solar installations. Despite ambitious renewable energy targets, many EU countries face prolonged approval timelines due to overlapping jurisdictional requirements, environmental assessments, and public consultations. Germany, traditionally a leader in solar adoption, encountered administrative backlogs in 2023 due to revised zoning laws and local opposition to ground-mounted installations. While some countries, including Spain and the Netherlands, have streamlined approval mechanisms through digital platforms and standardized documentation, inconsistencies remain across the bloc. The absence of a unified permitting framework hampers cross-border investment and undermines the EU’s broader goal of achieving a synchronized energy transition. Addressing these bureaucratic inefficiencies is crucial to unlocking the full potential of the Europe Solar PV market in the coming decade. A growing concern within the Europe Solar PV market is the shortage of skilled labor and trained professionals necessary to support the sector’s rapid expansion. As demand for solar installations surges, the workforce has struggled to keep pace, leading to project delays and increased labor costs. According to the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), the European solar industry requires an estimated 500,000 additional skilled workers by 2030 to meet deployment targets, yet current training programs and vocational pathways fall short of this demand. Countries like Poland and the Czech Republic, where PV adoption is accelerating, report acute shortages of certified installers, electrical engineers, and system designers. Even in mature markets such as Germany and France, recruitment challenges persist, particularly in rural areas where experienced technicians are retiring without adequate replacements. Educational institutions and industry stakeholders have initiated re-skilling and apprenticeship programs, but coordination remains fragmented.
REPORT METRIC DETAILS Market Size Available 2025 to 2034 Base Year 2025 Forecast Period 2025 to 2033 CAGR 25.21% Segments Covered By Technology, Grid Type, Installation, Application and Country Various Analyses Covered Regional & Country Level Analysis, Segment-Level Analysis, DROC, PESTLE Analysis, Porter’s Five Forces Analysis, Competitive Landscape, Analyst Overview on Investment Opportunities Countries Covered UK, France, Spain, Germany, Italy, Russia, Sweden, Denmark, Switzerland, Netherlands, Turkey, Czech Republic, and Rest of Europe Market Leaders Profiled The major players in the Europe solar photovoltaic (PV) market include Canadian Solar Inc., BrightSource Energy, Inc., First Solar, SunPower Corporation, Trina Solar, Yingli Solar, Wuxi Suntech Power Co. Ltd., Jinko Solar, Waaree Group, Acciona Energia S.A., and Nextera Energy Sources LLC. Crystalline silicon (c-Si) dominated the Europe Solar PV market in 2024. This segment’s overwhelming dominance is primarily driven by its high efficiency, declining costs, and mature manufacturing ecosystem. Crystalline silicon modules—comprising both monocrystalline and polycrystalline variants—are preferred for their superior performance under diverse climatic conditions, making them suitable for utility-scale, commercial, and residential applications across Europe. Monocrystalline silicon panels, in particular, have seen a surge in demand due to their higher energy conversion efficiencies, which are high in commercial models. As per Wood Mackenzie, over 85% of new installations in Germany and Spain in 2023 utilized monocrystalline technology. Moreover, strong supply chain integration within the EU, particularly through partnerships with Asian manufacturers and local European integrators, ensures consistent availability. The thin-film PV segment is emerging as the fastest-growing type within the Europe Solar PV market, projected to expand at a CAGR of 6.2%. This growth trajectory is being fueled by unique application advantages that crystalline silicon cannot match, such as lightweight design, flexibility, and better performance in low-light conditions. One of the key drivers is the increasing adoption of thin-film technology in Building-Integrated Photovoltaics (BIPV). In countries like France and the Netherlands, where urban density is high and architectural aesthetics are prioritized, thin-film panels—especially those based on cadmium telluride (CdTe) and copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS)—are being incorporated into facades, windows, and rooftops. Also, thin-film solar is gaining traction in agrivoltaics, where semi-transparent panels can be placed above crops without blocking sunlight entirely. Pilot projects in Germany and Italy are leveraging this feature to dual-use land for agriculture and energy generation. The residential end-user segment held the largest share of the Europe Solar PV market by capturing 47.2% of total installations in 2024. This control is attributed to growing consumer awareness about energy independence, favorable government incentives, and the plummeting cost of rooftop solar systems. The popularity of self-consumption models, aided by declining battery storage prices, has further boosted residential adoption. Furthermore, policy support plays a pivotal role. Countries like Spain and Poland introduced VAT exemptions and direct subsidies for homeowners installing solar systems. The European Commission also encouraged decentralized energy production via the Clean Energy Package, enabling prosumer participation. The industrial category including small and medium enterprises (SMEs)—is experiencing the highest growth rate, expanding at a CAGR of 11.5%. This rapid acceleration stems from increasing corporate sustainability mandates, rising electricity costs, and the economic benefits of on-site power generation. Industries across sectors such as food processing, logistics, and manufacturing are investing heavily in rooftop and ground-mounted PV systems to reduce operational expenses and meet environmental targets. A significant catalyst is the rise in Corporate Power Purchase Agreements (PPAs), particularly in Northern and Western Europe. The ground-mounted PV deployment segment accounted for the biggest share of the Europe Solar PV market by contributing 58.4% of total installed capacity in 2024. This rule is primarily due to the ability of ground-mounted systems to accommodate large-scale utility projects, which are essential for meeting national renewable energy targets. Countries like Spain, Germany, and Poland have led the way in deploying expansive photovoltaic farms on non-agricultural or degraded land. Another key driver is the scalability of ground-mounted systems, which allows developers to integrate advanced tracking technologies and bifacial modules for enhanced energy yield. Moreover, grid connection infrastructure is more straightforward for centralized ground-based installations, especially in regions with robust transmission networks. These factors collectively reinforce the continued leadership of the ground-mounted segment in shaping Europe’s solar energy landscape. Rooftop solar represented the fastest-growing deployment segment in the Europe Solar PV market, registering a CAGR of 9.8%. This rapid expansion is driven by increased adoption among residential and commercial users, supported by policy incentives, lower installation costs, and rising electricity tariffs. Germany remains the epicenter of rooftop growth, with over 6 GW of distributed PV capacity added in 2023. The country’s “Solarpakt” initiative introduced streamlined permitting and tax incentives for homeowners and businesses, accelerating rooftop deployment nationwide. Simultaneously, the integration of rooftop solar with battery storage systems is gaining momentum. According to Wood Mackenzie, residential battery installations in Europe surpassed 1 GWh in 2023, with over 60% of these paired with rooftop PV. This synergy enhances energy self-sufficiency and reduces reliance on the grid during peak hours. Local governments are also promoting rooftop initiatives through mandatory solar provisions. For example, France implemented a law requiring large commercial rooftops to be partially covered with solar panels starting in 2023. Germany held the largest share of the Europe Solar PV market by accounting for 28.5% of total installed capacity in 2024. As a pioneer in renewable energy adoption, Germany continues to lead in both utility-scale and distributed solar deployments. The country reached a cumulative installed PV capacity of over 77 GW, surpassing earlier projections. This sustained growth is largely attributable to progressive policy frameworks such as the Renewable Energy Sources Act (EEG), which was revised in 2023 to accelerate project approvals and expand incentive programs. Additionally, the government introduced a 0% VAT on self-consumed solar electricity, boosting residential and commercial uptake. The industrial sector has also played a crucial role, with major corporations signing corporate PPAs to meet sustainability goals. Spain has emerged as a key player in utility-scale solar development, adding a notable share of new PV capacity in 2023, driven by favorable regulatory reforms and abundant solar resources. A major catalyst has been the government’s auction mechanism, ensuring long-term revenue stability for developers. Moreover, Spain’s simplified permitting process and reduced interconnection fees have attracted substantial foreign investment, particularly from international utilities and independent power producers (IPPs). Corporate off-take agreements have also gained traction, with multinational firms like Google and Amazon signing long-term PPAs to power their data centers and logistics hubs. Italy has witnessed a resurgence in solar installations following a series of policy reforms aimed at streamlining project development and enhancing investor confidence. The introduction of the “Superbonus 110%” scheme, which offers a 110% tax deduction for energy efficiency upgrades including rooftop solar, spurred a wave of residential and commercial installations. Additionally, the Italian government launched the PNRR (National Recovery and Resilience Plan), allocating EUR 5.2 billion to renewable energy infrastructure, including solar parks and grid enhancements. Industrial adoption has also grown, with major manufacturing companies integrating solar to hedge against volatile electricity prices. The Netherlands has rapidly ascended as a leader in innovative solar deployment strategies. Despite its relatively modest geographic size and moderate solar irradiation, the country has leveraged smart urban planning and floating solar technologies to maximize output. The Dutch government’s “Energy Agreement for Sustainable Growth” has provided a clear roadmap for solar expansion, targeting 30 GW of installed PV capacity by 2030. Municipalities have played a key role in this effort, mandating solar installations on new buildings and promoting agrivoltaics. Commercial and industrial sectors have also embraced solar, with companies like DSM and ASML committing to 100% renewable operations. The rise of green hydrogen projects powered by solar PV further underscores the Netherlands’ strategic positioning. Poland is one of the fastest-growing markets in Central and Eastern Europe. The country added over 5 GW of new solar PV capacity in 2023, driven by supportive policies and a rapidly evolving domestic solar ecosystem. A key enabler has been the “My Electricity” (Mój Prąd) subsidy program, which provides financial assistance for residential solar installations. Additionally, Poland’s Prosumer Law, enacted in 2022, simplified net metering procedures and enabled surplus energy sales, encouraging greater participation. The industrial sector has also embraced solar as a means to mitigate high electricity costs, which ranked among the highest in the EU. The major players in the Europe solar PV market include The competition in the Europe Solar PV market is characterized by a dynamic mix of established global leaders, emerging regional players, and new entrants aiming to capitalize on the region’s robust renewable energy growth. As governments accelerate their climate commitments and introduce favorable regulatory frameworks, companies are under pressure to innovate, scale operations, and differentiate themselves through superior technology, service offerings, and sustainability practices. The market remains highly fragmented, with numerous firms competing across different segments, including module manufacturing, project development, system integration, and digital asset management. While international giants dominate utility-scale projects, medium-sized enterprises and startups are making notable strides in niche areas such as agrivoltaics, building-integrated photovoltaics, and decentralized energy networks. Strategic collaborations, vertical integration, and digital transformation have become essential tools for maintaining a competitive edge. Additionally, the increasing emphasis on local content requirements and environmental standards is reshaping market entry strategies and influencing long-term industry dynamics. One of the leading players in the Europe Solar PV market is Siemens Energy. The company plays a critical role in supporting solar energy integration through its advanced grid technologies and digital solutions. Siemens offers a wide range of products including inverters, monitoring systems, and grid automation tools that enhance the efficiency and reliability of photovoltaic installations. With a strong presence across both utility-scale and distributed solar projects, Siemens contributes significantly to enabling seamless renewable energy transition across European countries. Another key player is First Solar, a global leader in thin-film PV technology. Although headquartered in the United States, First Solar has a strong footprint in Europe, particularly in Germany, France, and the UK, where it supplies high-performance cadmium telluride (CdTe) modules. The company’s innovative approach to low-carbon, recyclable solar panels aligns with Europe’s sustainability goals. Its involvement in large-scale ground-mounted solar farms supports national renewable targets and reinforces the region’s clean energy infrastructure. Enel Green Power stands out as one of the most influential integrated renewable energy companies in Europe. A subsidiary of the Italian multinational Enel Group, it develops, manages, and operates PV plants across multiple European markets. Enel Green Power is known for its commitment to multi-technology renewable portfolios, combining solar with wind and storage solutions. The company actively engages in corporate power purchase agreements and green hydrogen initiatives, positioning itself at the forefront of Europe’s energy transformation. A primary strategy adopted by major participants in the Europe Solar PV market is vertical integration and supply chain localization. Companies are increasingly investing in local manufacturing units and forming strategic partnerships to reduce dependency on imported components and ensure faster project execution. This approach not only enhances cost-efficiency but also mitigates risks associated with global supply chain disruptions. Another crucial strategy is expanding into hybrid energy solutions. Leading firms are integrating solar PV with battery storage, wind, and green hydrogen technologies to offer comprehensive clean energy packages. These diversified offerings allow businesses and utilities to optimize energy generation, improve grid stability, and meet long-term decarbonization objectives more effectively. Lastly, strengthening customer engagement through digitalization and smart monitoring is gaining momentum. Key players are deploying advanced software platforms for real-time performance tracking, predictive maintenance, and remote diagnostics. This digital transformation enhances system efficiency, improves return on investment, and strengthens competitiveness in an evolving market landscape. This research report on the Europe solar PV market is segmented and sub-segmented into the following categories. By Type By Grid Type By Deployment By End-User By Country
Shanghai, June 3, 2026 — the global solar industry once again gathered at SNEC 2026 to showcase new technologies, products, and strategic directions. SolarSpace, a high-efficiency solar cell and module manufacturer founded in 2011, presented a more systematic approach to PV solutions in response to rising global trade barriers, diverging technology pathways, and intensifying competition across the solar value chain. At this year’s SNEC, SolarSpace’s presence can be summarized through four key elements: one central theme, two technology pathways, three regional marketing centers, and four ESG pillars. Together, they provide a clear picture of the company’s evolving strategy. One theme: Energizing efficiency, expanding carbon possibilities Every major solar manufacturer needs a clear message that connects technology, product strategy, and brand identity. For SolarSpace, the answer at SNEC 2026 was the theme: “Energizing Efficiency, Carbon Infinite.” “Energizing Efficiency” reflects the company’s long-standing focus on high-efficiency solar cells and modules. From cell manufacturing to module development, efficiency remains at the core of SolarSpace’s competitiveness. “Carbon Infinite” points to the company’s sustainability ambitions. As ESG requirements move from a voluntary corporate practice to an increasingly important market-access condition, SolarSpace is responding with its SEED sustainability strategy, which integrates green manufacturing, responsible supply chains, low-carbon product management, and global compliance. Together, the theme connects SolarSpace’s technical foundation with its long-term commitment to sustainable development. Two technology pathways: Mass-production strength and next-generation readiness SolarSpace’s technology strategy at SNEC 2026 followed a dual-track approach: strengthening mass-production products while preparing for next-generation cell and module technologies. The company’s Lumina II module series formed the core of its product display. Built on SolarSpace’s mature N-type technology platform, the series includes two mass-production modules designed for different market segments. The SSA-66HD-N module, with a power output of 640 W, is positioned for commercial and industrial distributed generation as well as utility-scale projects, with a focus on performance and cost-effectiveness. The SSA-48HDB-N, a 460 W full-black aesthetic module, is designed for premium residential markets in Europe and North America, combining conversion efficiency with architectural appearance. Alongside these mass-production products, SolarSpace also presented HJT and BC modules as part of its forward-looking technology portfolio. The SS9-66HD-H HJT module, rated at 750 W, and the SSA-66HD-NB BC module, rated at 680 W, are currently positioned as concept products rather than mass-production models. Their presence at the exhibition reflects SolarSpace’s continued research and development efforts in next-generation high-efficiency technologies. For any module product, core performance indicators such as efficiency potential, low-light response, and temperature coefficient ultimately depend on the underlying cell technology. This is where SolarSpace’s background as a cell manufacturer remains a key differentiator. At SNEC 2026, the company displayed its established G12R, G12, and G10L cell products, which continue to support customers with mature and reliable performance. It also introduced two new cell products: a 210N one-third-cut cell and a half-cut TBC cell, further extending its technology platform. Unlike manufacturers whose business is centered primarily on modules, SolarSpace’s foundation lies in solar cells. According to PV InfoLink, SolarSpace ranked second globally in solar cell shipments in 2025. This manufacturing base provides the technical foundation for the company’s module competitiveness and helps distinguish SolarSpace from many other PV exhibitors. Three marketing centers: A localized global market strategy As solar markets become more fragmented in policy, certification, customer demand, and trade regulation, global expansion increasingly requires localized execution. SolarSpace has established three regional marketing centers covering Europe, the United States, and Asia-Pacific. These centers serve as the organizational foundation for its “one region, one strategy” market approach. Through coordination among the three centers, SolarSpace is able to develop differentiated product and marketing strategies according to regional energy policies, application scenarios, customer preferences, and regulatory requirements. The company’s customer network currently spans five major regions: Asia-Pacific, North America, Europe, the Middle East and Africa, and Latin America. SolarSpace said it has established cooperation with more than 1,000 customers worldwide. This regionalized structure is expected to support closer communication with distributors, developers, EPC companies, and end users as requirements around performance, traceability, carbon footprint, and compliance continue to rise. Four ESG pillars: Accelerating the SEED sustainability strategy As global markets tighten regulation on lifecycle carbon emissions, ESG capabilities are becoming more than a reputational advantage. For PV manufacturers, they are increasingly linked to market access, bankability, customer due diligence, and long-term competitiveness. On the opening morning of SNEC 2026, SolarSpace held an offline launch ceremony for its 2025 ESG Report and presented the latest progress of its SEED sustainability strategy. The strategy is built around four pillars: Sustainable Energy Excellence, Ecological Green Energy, Empowering Value, and Dynamic Governance. During the launch, SolarSpace’s ESG team shared the company’s progress in green manufacturing, sustainable supply-chain management, carbon-footprint management, and global compliance governance. The presentation highlighted SolarSpace’s intention to further strengthen its sustainability capabilities and respond proactively to evolving ESG requirements in international markets. SolarSpace has obtained a number of international certifications and declarations, including the French LCA lifecycle assessment certification, ECS French carbon-footprint certification, ISO 14064 greenhouse gas verification statement, and ISO 20400 sustainable procurement conformity statement. In 2025, the company also received an EcoVadis Bronze Medal. In addition, SolarSpace was included in the 2024–2025 Forbes China Sustainable Industrial Enterprises list, recognized among outstanding ESG cases, and named in a global top 100 new energy ESG ranking. Four elements, one strategic direction Taken together, the four elements presented at SNEC 2026 form a coherent strategic framework for SolarSpace’s next stage of development. The theme of “Energizing Efficiency, Carbon Infinite” links the company’s technical capabilities with its sustainability commitments. Its dual-track technology strategy balances mass-production reliability with future-oriented innovation. Its three regional marketing centers support localized execution in a more complex global market. Its four ESG pillars provide a framework for long-term responsible growth. On the stage of SNEC 2026, this strategic framework provided SolarSpace with a clear sense of direction and a more complete narrative for its global development. Built on its solar cell manufacturing foundation and expanded through high-efficiency modules, regional market execution, and sustainability governance, the company aims to provide customers with more reliable, adaptable, and low-carbon PV solutions for the next phase of the energy transition.
China’s focused efforts signal the country’s view that solar panel recycling is a strategic approach to building a pipeline of critical materials to drive economic development and prepare for the next phase of the energy transition. By Pablo Ribeiro Dias, Chief Technology Officer, Solarcycle Given China’s leading position in the solar industry, it might be surprising to learn that China is not the leader in solar recycling. In fact, the U.S. and Europe have far more mature markets and are home to the industry’s dominant players. But China is taking serious steps to position itself to rival the U.S. and EU by 2030, and we should all be paying attention. The country is following a familiar playbook: centralized policy, local experimentation and targeted capital. This recipe is exactly how China achieved its dominant position in solar manufacturing. China’s focused efforts signal the country’s view that solar panel recycling is not just about managing waste, it is a strategic approach to building a healthy pipeline of critical materials to drive economic development and prepare for the next phase of the energy transition. Recently, I had the privilege of being one of only a handful of foreigners invited to attend China’s annual ECOPV Alliance (China Green Supply Chain Alliance Photovoltaic Committee) meeting, where business leaders, researchers, industry alliances and government figures gathered to discuss the current and future state of end-of-life solar in China. During the event, ECOPV’s exclusive annual “China PV Recovery and Recycling White Paper” was released, outlining 2025 findings and the road ahead. The biggest takeaway was not that China already has solved end-of-life solar. It has not. The market today is still fragmented, uneven and in many ways chaotic. The real takeaway is that China appears to have recognized this disorder as a strategic problem and has started treating it accordingly. At the meeting, one phrase came up repeatedly: the “last mile” of solar. It is a useful one. China already has built an extraordinary degree of vertical integration across the solar value chain. It has scale in high-purity silicon, wafers, cells, modules and the broader manufacturing ecosystem around them. But once panels reach the end of their useful lives, the loop still is not fully closed. Recovering those materials and putting them back into the supply chain remains the unfinished part of the project, or the “last mile.” The timing matters. China now has more than 1 terawatt of installed solar capacity, but its installed base is younger than that of places like Western Europe and the U.S. That means China is not yet seeing its biggest end-of-life volumes. According to the white paper and the discussions around it, the real inflection point is expected around 2030. But what I learned is that China is not waiting for the wave of retired panels to arrive before building the systems to handle it. It is trying to build ahead of the wave. One key challenge China is trying to solve is volatility. Because deployment itself happened in surges, decommissioning also is expected to come in intermittent waves rather than in a smooth, predictable flow. If recycling capacity is built too slowly, those spikes will overwhelm the system. But there is another risk as well: If capacity is built too aggressively, too early, the recycling sector could end up repeating one of the defining features of Chinese manufacturing more broadly—overcapacity. That concern was present in the discussions. China wants to build this industry before the waste volumes peak, but it also is aware of the danger of copying the solar manufacturing story too literally: too many players, too much duplicated capacity and too much capital chasing volumes that have not yet fully arrived. That is one reason the policy design matters so much. What I saw was a familiar pattern, paralleling the story of solar manufacturing in China: central direction, local experimentation, targeted capital and a clear preference for formal industrial capacity over informal or opportunistic practices. But unlike a simple race to build more plants, the strategy also seems aimed at shaping what kind of industry emerges. “Two-new” policies kept showing up over and over. One is building a standardization system. The other is accelerating environmental equipment research, development and deployment. Those two priorities are revealing. The first suggests that China understands the market cannot mature if it remains technically fragmented, operationally inconsistent and difficult to regulate. Standards are often what separates an improvised market from an industry. The second suggests that China is not content with treating solar recycling as a low-tech waste-handling business. The ambition is to turn recycling into a technology industry. That idea drives the policy strategy. The central government is setting direction, but provinces are being allowed to test different policy tools. Some are experimenting with extended producer responsibility models. Others are trying landfill bans. Some are letting the free market do its thing. We are yet to see which model comes out ahead. At the same time, the state is putting real money behind the buildout. One of the most striking signals of China’s commitment to the circular economy came in last year: In August, the government designated 500 billion RMB ($70 billion) from special ultra-long-term government bonds to support the ‘two-new’ policy. These policies reaffirm that China is treating recycling as industrial infrastructure. That might be the clearest lesson for other markets. If solar recycling is treated mainly as a waste problem, it likely will remain fragmented, low-margin and reactive. If it is treated as industrial infrastructure, the conversation changes. Standards, targeted R&D, enforcement and capacity planning all matter. Another element is worth watching closely: enforcement. The government is cracking down on what it calls informal practices, including uncontrolled chemical leaching and thermal processing without emissions controls. That serves two purposes at once. First, it limits pollution. Second, it protects the companies investing in legitimate, compliant and technically sophisticated operations from being undercut by low-cost, dirty processing. That distinction matters because a market cannot mature if the most serious players are forced to compete against operators that ignore environmental controls, skip treatment systems and carry none of the overhead that responsible processing requires. I regularly see this issue in the U.S.: Companies taking advantage of the nascent industry, underdeveloped standards and limited monitoring to make a quick profit while damaging the environment and avoiding the hard work of responsible recycling. But the most telling sign of where China wants this industry to go is technical, not just regulatory. The goal is not to remain in what might be called legacy recycling: shredding panels, pulling out some bulk materials and treating the rest as a lower-value stream. The push is toward high-value recovery: separating components with greater purity, avoiding cross-contamination and recovering materials in forms that can reenter industrial supply chains at much higher value. That is a very different ambition. It is also why “recycling” might be the wrong word, or at least an incomplete one. For many people, recycling still brings to mind waste collection, compliance and low-margin material handling. But what China is trying to build looks closer to high-tech material recovery. The feedstock is already in circulation. The challenge is not finding the material. It is recovering it cleanly, efficiently and at scale. That is especially clear in the focus on EVA, or ethylene-vinyl acetate, removal, one of the core technical bottlenecks in solar recycling. EVA is designed to survive decades in the field. That makes it an excellent material in a module and a very difficult one for recyclers. The government is directing research institutions and private companies toward solving that problem through multiple pathways, including high-precision mechanical approaches, targeted chemical solvents and controlled pyrolysis. Again, this is not a waste-management mindset. It is a technology-development mindset. And this is where the broader pattern becomes hard to ignore. We have seen China run this play before. It did not become dominant in solar manufacturing by accident. It aligned policy, capital, experimentation and industrial capacity around a long-term objective. What I saw in March had many of those same early signals, only now applied to end-of-life systems. China is not ahead in solar recycling today. The U.S. solar recycling market is emerging as one of the most mature globally outside Europe, driven in large part by the fact that large-scale solar deployment began earlier in the U.S. than in China. As a result, end-of-life solar panels started appearing sooner, prompting earlier development of recycling infrastructure, specialized state legislation in places like California and Washington and operational expertise at commercial scale. This head start should be treated as an advantage to build on, not as a reason for complacency. If the U.S. wants to remain ahead, it has to treat solar recycling as more than a niche environmental service. It should be viewed as a strategic industrial capability: One that requires serious standards, credible enforcement, continued technology development and companies willing to invest in real recovery systems rather than minimum-compliance waste handling. While China has a large number of recyclers, the market remains fragmented, whereas the U.S. has demonstrated the ability to process material at the scale needed to solve the coming wave of end-of-life solar material. This combination of early market maturity, advanced recycling technology and industry-leading material recovery capabilities from leading providers positions the U.S. as one of the largest long-term opportunities in the global solar circular economy. The U.S. does not need to prove that serious solar recycling can scale; it already has companies showing that it can. What it needs is a policy environment that rewards real recovery, pushes out free-riders and treats recycling as a strategic high-tech industry linked to critical resource security. But leadership does not begin when an industry is already mature. It begins when a country decides that an immature industry provides a strategic advantage and starts building the conditions to lead it. China has begun that process in solar recycling. This does not make Chinese leadership inevitable, but it does suggest long-term intent. What I saw was proof that solar recycling should be treated as something much bigger than waste management. U.S. leaders still have the opportunity to stay ahead rather than cede this industry to the same strategy that reshaped global solar manufacturing. Pablo Ribeiro Dias is chief technology officer at Solarcycle, a leading solar panel recycling company headquartered in Mesa, Arizona. Visit www.solarcycle.us for more information.
US-headquartered independent testing laboratory RETC has released its 2026 PV Module Index report, a document that contains the results of the company’s module reliability and performance testing, as well as in-depth discussions of factors in the modern solar industry that have led to the outcomes evident in the test results. Major findings include a persistent problem of ultraviolet light-induced degradation (UVID) in solar modules, an increase in failures during tests for reliability under damp heat and thermal cycling conditions, and a significant reduction in the number of manufacturers whose modules qualify for high achievement in hail durability testing. Each test is conducted on multiple modules in the same model line. Each model is known as a “bill of materials,” or BOM. In total, 11% of the BOMs tested for damp heat exhibited a failure condition (greater than 5% power loss), compared to just 6% the year before, while 8% failed UVID testing. While 5% of BOMs exhibited failures in the thermal cycling test sequence (up from 2% in 2025), 92% met the threshold for high achievement. This could indicate that a component chosen by a single manufacturer is to blame for the failure. Only 25% of BOMs were recognized as high achievers in hail durability testing, down from 70% the year before. Because this testing is optional, RETC did not define a failure condition, but noted that while most PV module designs can meet baseline ballistic impact standards recent catastrophic losses due to hailstorms suggest that more robust standard is necessary. Recognizing high achievers For 2026, RETC recognized 19 solar module manufacturers for high achievement in at least one test, and 13 manufacturers as Overall Highest Achievers, signifying they met standards in a certain number of tests for reliability and performance. Manufacturers recognized as Overall Highest Achievers in the 2026 report are Imperial Star Solar, JA Solar, JinkoSolar, Longi Solar, Qcells, Runergy, SolarSpace, Thornova Solar, Trina Solar, VSUN Solar, TW Solar, Waaree and Yingli Solar. How RETC tests modules RETC gleans much of the data it uses to evaluate manufacturers through its Thresher Test, a series of eight test sequences, with six sequences dedicated to module reliability and two for performance testing. Thresher test sequences in the reliability discipline include: Thresher test sequences in the performance discipline include: In addition to the Thresher test sequences, RETC evaluates solar modules based on their performance on its hail durability test (HDT), as well as tests it conducts to certify products for meeting California Energy Commission (CEC) standards. In total, each of the disciplines has seven tests in which products can be recognized for high achievement. Levels of achievement RETC recognizes manufacturers for their products’ scores on the testing regimen at the following four levels: Overall Highest Achiever, Reliability High Achiever, Performance High Achiever and Test Category High Achiever. Overall Highest Achiever status is awarded if the manufacturer’s products earn high achiever recognition in both of the disciplines, and have their test samples witnessed and bills of materials verified by an independent third party. Reliability High Achievers are manufacturers whose products exceed standards on at least 3 of the 7 tests in the reliability discipline (glass-on-backsheet models must exceed standards on the BUDT test and 3 additional tests). All of the above-listed companies qualified for this recognition in this year’s report. Performance High Achievers are manufacturers whose products exceed standards on at least 3 of the 7 tests in the performance discipline. As before, all of the above companies qualified. Alps Solar was also recognized. Test Category High Achiever status is awarded to manufacturers whose products exceed the high achiever standards on any single test. For 2026, the list includes Adani Solar, Auxin Solar, Illuminate Solar, Mission Solar, and Silfab Solar. This content is protected by copyright and may not be reused. If you want to cooperate with us and would like to reuse some of our content, please contact: [email protected]. Comments Please login to comment Thursday, July 9, 2026 11:00 am – 12:30 pm CEST, Berlin, Paris, Madrid Thursday, June 18, 2026 2:00 pm – 3:00 pm CEST, Berlin, Paris, Madrid Be part of the high-level European conference on solar and energy storage, exploring bankable BESS projects, warranties, and energy management for residential and C&I sectors Monday, June 1, 2026 5:30 pm – 6:30 pm CEST, Berlin, Madrid, Paris Wednesday, June 3, 2026 4:00 pm – 5:00 pm CEST, Berlin, Paris, Madrid Tuesday, June 9, 2026 11:00 am – 12:00 pm CEST, Berlin, Paris, Madrid Thursday, June 11, 2026 5:00 pm – 6:00 pm CEST, Berlin, Paris, Madrid Tuesday, June 16, 2026 10:00 am – 11:00 am CEST, Berlin, Paris, Madrid Wednesday, June 10, 2026 3:00 pm – 4:00 pm CEST, Berlin, Paris, Madrid Friday, June 12, 2026 2:00 pm – 3:00 pm CEST, Berlin, Paris, Madrid Monday, June 15, 2026 9:30 am – 10:30 am CEST, Berlin, Paris, Madrid Tuesday, June 16, 2026 6 am – 7:00 am CEST, Berlin The new pv magazine Global May issue is now available! Mountains to climb Available in print and digital formats. Entries open in seven categories: Modules, Inverters, BoS, BESS, Manufacturing, Sustainability, Projects. April 01 – August 31, 2026 A two-day conference in Austin, Texas, bringing together leaders in US solar manufacturing, equipment specification, and factory execution. Saudi Arabia is accelerating its clean energy transition—join the SunRise Arabia Clean Energy Conference 2026 in Riyadh to explore how solar PV and energy storage are powering its digital economy. Showcase your brand across all our platforms: from 13 websites in 7 languages to our magazines, daily newsletters, industry events and more. Reach your audience the right way! We are participating in Intersolar 2026 again this year! Visit us at our Booth Hall 2 A2.250 to discuss the latest trends within the photovoltaic industry with the pv magazine team. June 23-25, 2026 | MUNICH, GERMANY
Baltimore Beat Black-led, Black-controlled news When Janete Gonzalez went to the Druid Hill Park farmers market in the fall of 2022, she was a new Baltimore City resident, having just moved after a house fire destroyed everything she owned. That day, she expected to leave the northern Baltimore market with food and maybe some health care products. Instead, she left with solar panels. Want the latest issue in your inbox?
“I originally assumed that solar panels were for people who had bigger land or lived in a better neighborhood,” Gonzalez said. “I just didn’t think it was for us.” But Civic Works, a nonprofit working to improve energy accessibility in Maryland, is changing that. After visiting the organization’s booth at the farmers market, Gonzalez joined its solar accessibility program. Now, she is one of more than four dozen Baltimore City residents who have received free solar panel installations as part of the Baltimore Shines program. The program emerged as a partnership between the Baltimore City Department of Housing and Community Development and Civic Works as an affordable solution for low-income residents to lower their electricity bills and make a positive impact on the environment. Baltimore Shines started this round of solar installs in 2024 and as of December had completed 50 solar installations for income-qualifying homeowners. By the end of 2026, the program hopes to bring that number to 170 installations. “Our goal is to really make it as easy and worry-free a process as possible for the resident,” said Eli Allen, the senior program director at Civic Works. After Gonzalez’s first introduction to Baltimore Shines, she went through an almost yearlong process of information sessions, online applications, a roof assessment and several house visits. Her solar panels were installed in June 2023, and by December, they were generating power. Now Gonzalez saves about 50% on her Baltimore Gas and Electric Company bill. Bills that came in around $400 now average $176-$230 a month, she said. “It gives that safeguard to really embrace the house that you have and lets you focus on family life,” Gonzalez said. Those savings are nothing unusual. According to 2024 fiscal year data from the Maryland Energy Administration, Baltimore Shines has cut residents’ electricity bills by an average of $1,500 annually. “That’s quite a significant amount,” said Angel Saules, Maryland Energy Administration program manager. “That’s over $100 a month that people are able to save by having these systems installed.”
On average, however, these savings are not consistent throughout the year due to seasonal changes in solar production. Solar panels convert sunlight into electrical energy through photovoltaic panels. During the winter months, with fewer hours of sunlight, solar systems produce less energy. Coupled with an increase in heating needs, hot water usage and electricity for lighting, that means residents typically don’t save as much in their energy bills during the colder months. “It’s great for the summer, not too much for the winter,” said Baltimore Shines participant Tyresa German. In the winter, German said she saves about $50 per month; BGE bills that used to come in around $250 now average $200 per month. But once summer rolls around, German’s bills drop to $10-$30 a month. “My friends hate me,” German joked. “Prior to getting the solar panels, I was doing a lot of overtime just so I could not feel drowned in the BGE bill.” Baltimore Shines also ensures city residents aren’t drowned by the cost of solar panels. In Baltimore City, the average row home can safely handle an 11-kilowatt solar system, which costs residents between $15,000 and $18,000, said Victor Walters, associate director of outreach and intake at Civic Works. That price tag makes solar energy a luxury that is out of reach for some. With Baltimore Shines, residents pay zero out-of-pocket costs — but only low-income homeowners qualify for the program. Income limits range from $26,338 for a single-person household to $54,600 for a family of four to $92,260 for a family of eight. Under the program, Civic Works owns and operates the solar panels it installs on homes for a 20-year lease term, covering any maintenance issues or replacements residents may need. To finance the program, Civic Works receives grants from a variety of sources, which previously included funding from a program called Solar for All. However, after the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency terminated $7 billion in grants for Solar for All programs in August 2025, Baltimore Shines was forced to restructure to adjust for the lack of funding. “We have had to cap the size of the solar system we are installing to be able to offer solar to more community residents,” Walters said. Now residents’ solar systems are limited to 5.7 kilowatts — roughly half the size of previous systems installed under the program. If residents want to expand their system size, those costs come out of pocket, Walters said. The Maryland Energy Administration Residential Energy Equity Program now serves as one of the program’s main funding sources — and it expects demand for the program to grow. “The way we expect to see that unfold is that we’ll have more applicants for solar than we have in the past because there isn’t going to be access in other ways,” Saules said. The chance to switch to solar matters for Baltimore City residents as BGE utility rates continue to climb. Since January 2025, BGE customers have seen multiple increases in their energy bills, with residents expecting to pay an average of $26.06 more per month for combined gas and electric bills, according to 2025 energy bill information for BGE customers. Low-income residents bear the brunt of the energy burden. In Baltimore, the median energy burden of low-income households was four times higher than non-low-income households, according to a 2020 report by the American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy. The median household in Baltimore spent 3% of its income on its energy bill, yet median low-income Baltimore households spent 10.5%, according to the report. Addressing the energy bills of low-income households simultaneously addresses climate change, Saules said. “Our goals as a state are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by a certain amount by a certain time,” Saules said. “A good way to achieve that goal is to address the highest energy burden, which is typically in lower-income households.” Energy efficiency education is a crucial part of this conversation, she added. Being energy efficient can be as simple as knowing how your everyday behaviors affect your energy usage, like turning off the water while brushing your teeth and not constantly adjusting your thermostat. At Baltimore Shines, solar panels are the first step in making a home more energy efficient. Then comes homeowner support and education to help residents understand how usage affects their electricity bills each month. “When we install a new efficiency model in someone’s home, people sometimes think they can overuse any system,” Walters said. “People start to use more energy because they are assuming that this newer product is going to save them so much.” Walters said staffers help residents feel confident in their decision to go solar. However, given the program’s limited staffing size, this support is not always as timely as residents want it to be, he said. “The biggest feedback that we have gotten from program participants is not knowing step by step what’s going on,” he said. In some cases, after residents have gotten their solar panels installed, they think their system will be turned on immediately. However, solar panels can sit on the roof of someone’s home for two to three months, awaiting city inspection and for BGE to connect the system. To get ahead of such issues, Civic Works is working on new ways to improve communication with residents, Walters said. But Gonzalez said the support she’s gotten from Civic Works has been a key part of her Baltimore Shines experience. The program goes beyond just covering finances; it’s about having access to resources to better understand the energy options available and how different systems will affect your finances and carbon footprint. “I had access to learn about these things as a new homeowner — understanding the importance of energy savings and going green and all of these things we can do differently to contribute to the environment,” Gonzalez said.
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BusinessDay Jacob Akintunde June 7, 2026 The Ondo State Government has launched the Lucky Light Initiative, a statewide solar empowerment programme designed to provide reliable solar energy solutions to 1,000 businesses across the state’s 18 Local Government Areas. The initiative, one of the flagship economic empowerment programmes of Governor Lucky Aiyedatiwa’s administration, seeks to address one of the most pressing challenges facing small and medium-scale enterprises (SMEs): the high cost and unreliability of electricity. BusinessDay reports that under the programme, selected businesses will receive solar power systems comprising solar panels, inverter systems, battery storage, charge controllers, and installation support, enabling them to reduce dependence on fuel-powered generators and operate more efficiently. Also it will accelerate enterprise growth, strengthen economic productivity, and expand access to affordable energy in the state. Speaking on the significance of the initiative, stakeholders described Lucky Light as more than an energy intervention. Rather, it is a strategic economic activation programme aimed at stimulating grassroots economic growth, enhancing productivity, and supporting sustainable business expansion across Ondo State.
The programme aligns closely with Governor Aiyedatiwa’s “OUR EASE” Agenda, particularly its focus on affordable energy access, entrepreneurship development, industrial growth, and economic prosperity. According to the implementation framework, the initiative will be rolled out in phases across all 18 local government areas within 5 years, benefiting businesses operating in key sectors such as agro-processing, fashion, food production, retail, ICT, digital services, and the creative economy.
Experts estimate that the initiative could reduce business energy costs by as much as 70 percent while increasing productivity and operating hours by between 30 and 60 percent. With beneficiaries spread across the state, the programme is also expected to generate significant employment opportunities and strengthen local enterprise ecosystems. Economic projections indicate that by providing MSMEs and SMEs with reliable and uninterrupted access to electricity, the Lucky Light Initiative has the potential to generate over N2billion in additional annual economic value across the State, creating a multiplier effect that supports business expansion, job creation, and broader economic prosperity. Beyond its economic impact, Lucky Light is expected to promote clean energy adoption, reduce carbon emissions, and decrease reliance on fossil fuel-powered generators, positioning Ondo State as a leader in renewable energy-driven enterprise development.
The programme’s long-term goal is to establish a sustainable model for business empowerment while enhancing investor confidence and improving the ease of doing business in the state. Described as a signature initiative of the Aiyedatiwa administration, Lucky Light represents a commitment to innovation, inclusive economic growth, and practical support for entrepreneurs and small business owners. As preparations begin for implementation, many business owners across Ondo State are optimistic that the initiative will provide the much-needed energy support required to unlock growth, create jobs, and build stronger local economies. With Lucky Light Initiative, the Ondo State Government is not merely providing solar power; it is empowering enterprises, strengthening livelihoods, and illuminating a brighter economic future for thousands of residents across the Sunshine State.
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Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript. Advertisement Scientific Reportsvolume 16, Article number: 7615 (2026) Cite this article 1799 Accesses 7 Altmetric Metrics details This article has been updated This study investigates the effectiveness of oleic acid-functionalized Al₂O₃ nanoparticle thin-film coatings in reducing dust-induced performance losses in photovoltaic (PV) systems. Coating performance was evaluated using spraying durations of 20, 40, and 80 s and oleic acid concentrations between 0.5% and 4.5%. Characterization results indicated that the optimal coating was obtained using a 40-second spraying time and a 1.5% oleic acid concentration, resulting in a 231 nm film thickness and a water contact angle of 75.47°, confirming improved surface properties. Laboratory experiments showed that the coated surfaces accumulated, on average, 6.9 mg/cm² less dust than uncoated ones, preventing 0.6–3.0% efficiency loss. A central composite design (CCD) approach was applied by considering temperature, relative humidity, wind speed, and initial dust load as environmental variables. Field tests performed under real outdoor conditions demonstrated that coated Mini-PV modules produced 0.5–0.8 W more daily energy compared to uncoated panels. However, environmental factors such as temperatures above 35 °C and the presence of hydrophobic pollutants reduced long-term coating effectiveness. Overall, the findings indicate that oleic acid-modified Al₂O₃ coatings may serve as a passive strategy for mitigating dust accumulation and enhancing PV panel performance under certain conditions. Solar energy, a form of renewable energy, possesses significant potential due to its global accessibility and sustainability. Each year, the Earth receives approximately 1.5 quadrillion megawatts of solar energy. If just 0.1% of this energy were converted into electricity at 10% efficiency, it would supply nearly four times the current global electricity demand1,2. Driven by increasing energy demands and environmental commitments such as the Paris Climate Agreement, the adoption of renewable energy systems to replace fossil fuels has gained significant momentum. Photovoltaic (PV) systems, in particular, have emerged as a promising clean energy solution3. The rapid decline in PV installation costs has accelerated their deployment; for instance, Türkiye’s installed solar capacity doubled from 9.7 GW in July 2022 to over 19 GW by the end of 20244. Nevertheless, despite technological advancements, the energy conversion efficiency of PV panels remains highly sensitive to environmental conditions5. The efficiency of PV modules is influenced by numerous factors, both controllable and uncontrollable. Dust is an uncontrollable environmental factor that varies with geographical location. Its accumulation on PV panel surfaces can cause physical degradation, reduce incident solar radiation, and increase panel temperature, leading to thermal stress and altered electrical characteristics that significantly decrease energy conversion efficiency6. Soiling has been identified as a major contributor to energy losses in PV systems, with airborne particles obstructing solar radiation absorption and transmission, resulting in average annual losses of about 7%7,8,9,10. Notably, certain anti-reflective coatings have been shown to reduce surface soiling by up to 60%, depending on the installation site’s geographical conditions11. Recent research has increasingly focused on developing and evaluating anti-soiling strategies to enhance the performance and reliability of photovoltaic systems under real-world conditions12. Consequently, many manufacturers are exploring the addition of anti-fouling or self-cleaning properties to PV module coatings13. The extent of soiling is influenced by factors such as the chemical and physical composition of dust, climatic conditions, panel tilt angle, and geographical location14. In particular, arid summers, intensive agricultural activities, and low precipitation contribute to elevated dust emissions and surface soiling15. Additionally, the structure, size, and concentration of dust particles play a significant role in determining the magnitude of energy loss in PV panels16. Traditionally, solar panels are cleaned with water; however, this method is often impractical in regions with limited water resources. Additionally, dew formation can cause dust particles to adhere more strongly to panel surfaces, reducing the effectiveness of conventional cleaning. Efficiency losses due to dust accumulation are particularly severe in desert and arid climates. Hossain et al.17 noted, dust composition varies significantly by region, highlighting the need to optimize antifouling coatings for specific geographical and climatic conditions. Huang et al.18 examined the comparative performance of coatings on surfaces with varying wettability, emphasizing the critical role of surface energy in dust retention. Wang et al.19 developed a bioinspired three-layer coating, modeled after the structure of human hair, which exhibited superhydrophobic properties, effectively reducing reflectance and increasing power output by up to 2.6%. Abdrabo et al.20 demonstrated that nanoceramic sprays based on TiO₂ and SnO₂ offer a practical solution, enhancing photovoltaic efficiency by up to 5.4% under outdoor conditions. Shahzad et al.21 provided a comprehensive review of the effects of soiling on PV performance and evaluated both conventional and advanced cleaning strategies, including hydrophobic coating approaches. In a separate experimental study, Tayel et al.22 applied a PDMS/SiO₂-based hydrophobic nanocoating to PV panels and tested their performance under outdoor conditions for 40 days. Their results demonstrated that the nanocoated panel achieved a 30.7% higher efficiency compared to the uncoated reference panel. Shuhua et al.23 demonstrated that PDMS coatings infused with inert silicone oil exhibit enhanced icephobic and anti-soiling behavior, maintaining reduced dust adhesion even after prolonged outdoor exposure. Abhinav et al.24 developed HMDS-modified silica–zirconia composite coatings that showed high mechanical durability, stable hydrophobicity, and consistent anti-soiling performance under repeated abrasion cycles. These studies underscore that coating-based passive methods offer significant promise as cost-effective, durable, and high-performance alternatives to active cleaning systems. Surface coatings used on PV cover glass are generally categorized as hydrophobic, hydrophilic, antireflective, or multifunctional anti-soiling layers. These coatings aim to reduce particle adhesion by lowering surface energy, modifying wetting behavior, or introducing micro/nanostructured textures on the glass surface25. Recent studies have demonstrated that both hydrophobic and hydrophilic coating strategies can significantly reduce dust adhesion on PV surfaces. Hydrophobic approaches such as silicone-oil-infused PDMS coatings and HMDS-modified silica-zirconia hybrids have shown enhanced dust repellency and mechanical robustness under outdoor exposure24. In contrast, hydrophilic strategies, including quantum-sized TiO₂ coatings, promote rapid water spreading and photoinduced self-cleaning, enabling effective removal of adhered particles during dew or rain events26. Nature-inspired surfaces like the lotus leaf further illustrate how hierarchical structures contribute to long-term dust-repellent behavior27. Recent studies have increasingly emphasized the importance of advanced coating technologies in mitigating dust accumulation and enhancing the optical performance of photovoltaic (PV) modules, particularly in arid and desert climates where soiling losses are most severe. Comprehensive reviews have highlighted the role of anti-soiling and anti-reflective coatings in improving long-term durability and energy yield under harsh environmental conditions28, while emerging research on polymer-based functional coatings demonstrates the potential of superhydrophobic and antistatic surfaces for improved self-cleaning and dust mitigation29. Field evaluations of hydrophobic and nanostructured coatings in dusty regions, including Oman, consistently report measurable gains in transmittance and electrical output, confirming their practical relevance30,31. Furthermore, comparative studies examining superhydrophobic and superhydrophilic coatings provide valuable insights into how surface chemistry and wetting behavior influence dust adhesion mechanisms32. Collectively, this growing body of literature underscores the critical need for robust, multifunctional coatings capable of maintaining PV performance by reducing soiling effects and enhancing surface durability in real-world operating conditions33. In this study, we propose a novel approach to mitigating soiling-induced energy losses in PV panels by applying an oleic acid-modified Al₂O₃ nanoparticle thin film onto the outer glass surface using a spray-coating technique. The coated surfaces were characterized using SEM, AFM, and XRD analyses, and their anti-soiling performance was evaluated under both laboratory and real-world environmental conditions. This work aims to enhance sustainable and efficient energy production, particularly in arid regions where soiling presents a significant challenge. To the best of our knowledge, this study provides a new and distinctive contribution by exploring oleic acid-modified Al₂O₃ coatings for anti-soiling applications in PV technologies. This section outlines the materials, synthesis procedures, surface characterization techniques, and performance testing protocols used to evaluate the effectiveness of oleic acid-functionalized Al₂O₃ nanoparticle coatings for anti-soiling applications in PV panels. The experimental workflow is summarized in Fig. 1. Experimental workflow for evaluation of anti-soiling performance of oleic acid-Modified Al₂O₃ coatings in photovoltaic applications. All chemicals utilised in this study were of analytical grade and were employed without further purification. The following reagents were procured from Sigma-Aldrich (USA) and Merck (Germany): aluminium isopropoxide (98%), nitric acid (≥ 65%), acetylacetone (≥ 99%), oleic acid (≥ 99%), hexane (≥ 95%), toluene (≥ 99.5%), and isopropyl alcohol (≥ 99.7%). The alumina sol was prepared with minor modifications based on the procedure outlined by Wang et al.34. The initial step involved the dissolution of 2.04 g of aluminum isopropoxide (C₃H₇O₃Al) in 100 mL of anhydrous isopropyl alcohol. Subsequently, 2 mL of concentrated nitric acid and 1.25 mL of acetylacetone were added. The mixture was stirred for 60 min at a temperature of 70–80 °C within an oil bath. The resultant solution was transparent and exhibited stability at ambient temperature over an extended duration. The Al₂O₃ thin films were deposited onto glass substrates via spray coating. During the deposition, the substrates were maintained at a constant temperature of 250 °C. After deposition, the films were cured at 500 °C for 1 h to enhance adhesion and film integrity. The thickness of the coatings was investigated parametrically by varying the spray time. Oleic acid functionalization was carried out following the method by Soleimani and Zamani35, with some modifications. Oleic acid solutions at various concentrations (0.5 g/100 mL, 1.5 g/100 mL, and 5 g/100 mL) were prepared using hexane as the solvent. The coated glass samples were immersed in the solutions at 50 °C for 1 h. After immersion, the samples were removed, rinsed three times with toluene, and dried at 60 °C for 24 h. The effect of oleic acid concentration on the hydrophobicity of the surface was examined. The morphology of the functionalized glass surfaces was characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM, JEOL JEM-2100). Additionally, atomic force microscopy (TT-2 AFM) was employed to evaluate surface roughness and topography. The crystalline structure of the films was investigated using X-ray diffraction (EUROPE 600 Benchtop XRD). Water contact angle measurements (DATAPHYSICS / OCA 50Micro) were performed to assess the hydrophobic or hydrophilic nature of the surfaces. Optical transmittance of the samples was measured using UV-Vis spectroscopy (Jenway 72 Series) and compared to that of untreated glass. Based on these characterizations, the samples exhibiting the highest hydrophobicity and light transmittance were selected for further soil (dust) accumulation tests. Selected wettability-tuned glass samples were integrated into miniature photovoltaic modules using a conventional lamination process. The sandwich structure consisted of wettability-tuned glass / EVA (ethylene vinyl acetate) / solar cell / EVA / TPT (Tedlar polyester). Lamination was carried out using a custom-built laboratory laminator at a constant temperature of 135 ± 5 °C. The fabricated test panels and two reference panels were subjected to both laboratory and outdoor performance evaluations. Laboratory tests involved controlled variation of temperature, relative humidity, soil concentration, and wind speed. A central composite design (CCD) approach was employed using Minitab statistical software to structure the experimental design. In this study, the CCD method was selected to optimize the coating parameters because it provides an efficient and statistically rigorous framework for modeling nonlinear relationships among continuous variables such as oleic acid concentration, spraying duration, and nanoparticle loading. Unlike simpler factorial or Taguchi designs, CCD incorporates axial points that enable the estimation of curvature effects and second-order interactions, allowing the construction of an accurate quadratic response surface with fewer experimental trials than a full-factorial design36. The mini-PV-modules electrical output (current-voltage characteristics), surface soil accumulation, and optical transmittance were measured in each case. The obtained data were analyzed statistically using Minitab® version 21.4 (Minitab LLC, State College, PA, USA, https://www.minitab.com). The parameters used in the experimental design are presented in the following sections. The performance of surface-modified glass samples and laminated test panels was evaluated in a laboratory-scale test chamber with controlled temperature, humidity, and airflow. The dimensions of the chamber were 100 cm × 100 cm × 100 cm. The experimental setup is illustrated in Fig. 2a. For the electrical performance testing of the laminated PV mini modules, the platform was tilted at an angle of 32.08°, which corresponds to the optimal inclination angle recommended for Konya based on regional solar irradiance studies37. The quantity of soil accumulated on the surface was determined by measuring the weight difference before and after the experiments. The soil (dust) samples used in the experiments were collected from the vicinity of the small-scale solar power plant at Konya Technical University Technical Sciences Vocational School, where the outdoor tests were conducted. The samples were then saved to obtain particles smaller than 200 microns for use in the experiments. A 1000 W halogen light source was used to simulate sunlight during the laboratory testing of the laminated Mini-PV modules. To ensure compliance with AM1.5G irradiance standards, a calibrated pyranometer with a sensitivity of 7.99 mV/(kW/m²) was employed. The distance between the halogen lamp and the PV module was adjusted to obtain an irradiance level of 1000 W/m² on the module surface, and the light source was verified accordingly. The current and voltage outputs of the mini-PV modules were recorded over time under varying environmental conditions, including temperature, humidity, airflow rate, and dust concentration. This test chamber facilitated the precise evaluation of mini-PV modules performance under controlled conditions that are difficult to regulate in real-world environments, such as irradiance, soil (dust) load, temperature, and humidity. The data obtained from this setup serves as a baseline for modeling the real-world performance of the developed surface coatings. A schematic diagram of the experimental setup and a view of the constructed test system are presented in Figs. 2a, b, respectively. (a) Schematic representation of the indoor dust deposition simulator used for controlled laboratory testing. (b) Photograph of the laboratory-scale experimental setup. (c) Block diagram of the monitoring system, including computer interface, TM4C1294 microcontroller, temperature, voltage, and current sensors, and tested PV modules. (d) 3D model illustrating the outdoor PV panel mounting structure equipped with a temperature sensor. (e) Actual photograph of the outdoor dust-accumulation experiment conducted on the coated and uncoated Mini-PV modules. Based on the findings from laboratory-scale experiments, additional testing was carried out under real-world environmental conditions. In this context, the laminated mini-PV modules were installed at the small-scale solar power plant located within the campus of Konya Technical University Vocational School of Technical Sciences, as shown in Figs. 2(d) and 2(e). As illustrated in Fig. 2(c), the current, voltage, and temperature of the mini-PV modules were measured using sensors and recorded via a data acquisition system built around the TM4C1294 microcontroller. A custom interface program was developed to facilitate communication between the microcontroller and a computer via Ethernet, enabling real-time data collection. Measurements were acquired and logged at one-minute intervals using this user interface. The custom-designed system and the integrated data acquisition setup enabled accurate monitoring of the electrical output of each panel, providing a reliable basis for comparing the real-world performance of mini-PV modules with appropriate surface coatings. The experimental setup employed in this study was designed to simulate summer dust-loading conditions. Winter-specific environmental parameters such as low temperatures, increased humidity, and snow deposition could not be reproduced within the available laboratory infrastructure. To determine the optimal coating conditions, glass lamellae were coated with an aluminum oxide (Al₂O₃) sol solution using spray pyrolysis at 250 °C for 20, 40, and 80 s. The glass lamellae were cleaned in succession with pure water, ethanol, acetone, and hexane, and then dried with an air gun prior to spray pyrolysis. Following deposition, the samples were cured at 500 °C to promote film formation. Surface analysis was performed using SEM, AFM, XRD, profilometry, and contact angle measurement. XRD patterns, SEM, and AFM images of the sample coated with Al₂O₃ sol for 20, 40, and 80 s are seen in Fig. 3. The sample coated for 20 s had a rough surface, as several large pores were visible in the SEM and AFM images (Fig. 3a1, a2). The corresponding XRD pattern (Fig. 3a3) lacked sharp peaks, indicating the amorphous nature of the coating. SEM and AFM micrographs of the 40-second deposition (Fig. 3b1, b2) revealed regularly spaced, droplet-shaped aggregations with a diameter of 186–434 nm. ImageJ measurements provided an average diameter of 284.3 ± 63.8 nm. No significant change in elevation was detected in the AFM scans, which presented a relatively flat surface. XRD data again confirmed the amorphous nature of the thin film (Fig. 3b3). The 80-second coated sample exhibited clearly defined signs of delamination in specific locations (Fig. 3c1, c2). SEM images indicated excessive Al₂O₃ deposition, which may have been responsible for the poor adhesion and peeling observed following thermal treatment. The coating thickness was estimated to be 1.238 ± 0.385 μm. AFM images also showed non-uniform height distribution. As with previous samples, the XRD pattern (Fig. 3c3) showed no crystallinity, confirming the amorphous structure. Profilometry analysis (using a Nanomap profilometer) quantified the coating thickness as 27 nm, 231 nm, and 1159 nm for 20,40, and 80 s sprayed samples, respectively. These results indicate that coating thickness increases with spray time, though not linearly, but rather in an exponential manner. AFM (a1–c1), SEM (a2–c2), and XRD (a3–c3) results of Al₂O₃-sol-coated samples at coating durations of 20 s (a), 40 s (b), and 80 s (c). To enhance surface hydrophobicity, the coated lamellae were functionalized with an oleic acid/n-hexane solution at 50 °C for 1 h. For clarity and brevity, sample names are abbreviated as CLx_OAy, where CL stands for “coated lamellae,” x is the coating duration in seconds, and y is the oleic acid concentration in percent (w/w) in hexane. For instance, CL40_OA1.5 refers to a lamella coated with Alumina sol for 40 s and treated with 1.5% oleic acid. In the functionalization process, three defined oleic acid concentrations (0.5%, 1.5%, and 4.5% w/w) were applied to the coated lamellae to evaluate the effect of surface modification level. For comparison, CL20_OA1.5 and CL80_OA1.5 samples were also prepared. Figure 4 presents the results of both AFM and SEM analyses of coated lamellae samples treated with varying concentrations of oleic acid (0.5%, 1.5%, and 4.5% w/w) and coating durations (20, 40, and 80s). Spherical aggregations were clearly observed in CL40_OA0.5 and CL40_OA1.5, whereas no such structures appeared in CL40_OA4.5, likely due to reduced aggregation under more acidic conditions. Aggregate diameters in CL40_OA0.5 ranged from 469 nm to 1.09 μm, while the average diameter in CL40_OA1.5 was 290 ± 116 nm. Both CL20_OA1.5 and CL80_OA1.5 also exhibited aggregation), with a lower degree in the CL20_OA1.5 sample. It is noteworthy that CL40_OA0.5 and CL40_OA1.5 exhibited significant spherical aggregations. CL40_OA0.5 demonstrated larger and more scattered clusters, while CL40_OA1.5 exhibited smaller, more uniform structures. These observations suggest that moderate oleic acid concentrations (1.5%) facilitate controlled self-assembly, whereas lower concentrations promote larger aggregate formation. Conversely, CL40_OA4.5 exhibited a smooth and homogenous surface devoid of visible aggregates, suggesting that the presence of excessive oleic acid may impede clustering, potentially due to surface saturation or heightened acidity. Samples with different coating durations, designated CL20_OA1.5 and CL80_OA1.5, also exhibited notable differences: CL20_OA1.5 exhibited irregular, rough topography and a paucity of aggregates, likely due to insufficient material deposition, whereas CL80_OA1.5 exhibited limited aggregation and flatter surfaces, possibly resulting from denser surface coverage that restricted oleic acid interaction. These results emphasize the combined effects of oleic acid concentration and coating time on surface morphology and aggregate formation. AFM 3D surface topographies (a1–e1) and SEM micrographs (a2–e2) of oleic acid–functionalized Al₂O₃-sol-coated lamellae prepared under different coating durations and oleic acid concentrations. Panels (a1, a2), (b1, b2), and (c1, c2) correspond to CL40_OA0.5, CL40_OA1.5, and CL40_OA4.5, respectively, while panels (d1, d2) and (e1, e2) represent CL20_OA1.5 and CL80_OA1.5. The primary aim of this study was to develop surface-modified Al₂O₃-based lamellae capable of reducing dust adhesion, thereby contributing to anti-soiling performance on PV surfaces. In this context, wettability characteristics provide an indirect but highly informative indicator of surface behavior, as they are closely related to adhesion energy, particle surface interactions, and the ease with which dust particles can be removed. The quantitative contact angle data presented in Table 1, together with the sessile-drop images in Supplementary Figure S1–S4, therefore offer valuable insights into how coating duration and oleic acid functionalization modulate the surface characteristics relevant to dust mitigation. The uncoated glass substrate exhibited a baseline contact angle of 38.04°, indicating a high surface energy that typically favors strong particle adhesion. Following the deposition of the Al₂O₃ sol–gel layer, the contact angle increased to 37.60° at 20 s, 55.43° at 40 s, and 55.98° at 80 s, showing that the evolving morphology of the oxide layer alters the wetting properties and potentially reduces dust–surface adhesion. Although these values remain within the wettable regime (< 90°), the increase suggests a reduction in surface energy that may contribute to lowering dust accumulation. Oleic acid functionalization further modified the surface behavior, producing systematic increases in contact angles across all samples. For the CL40 series, the measured angles were 63.79° (0.5%), 72.75° (1.5%), and 75.47° (4.5%), demonstrating that higher concentrations of the fatty acid enhance the organic surface coverage and influence surface particle interactions. Likewise, the samples functionalized at 1.5% oleic acid after 20 s and 80 s of coating produced contact angles of 66.12° and 79.59°, respectively. While none of these values exceed the hydrophobic threshold of 90°, the consistent upward trend confirms that both coating duration and oleic acid concentration contribute to modifying the surface in ways that are relevant for anti-soiling applications. It is important to emphasize that anti-soiling performance does not require hydrophobic or superhydrophobic behavior; instead, reduced surface energy, modified chemical functionality, and changes in micro/nanoscale morphology can meaningfully influence dust adherence and removal dynamics. The low standard deviations observed for all samples indicate that the functionalization process yields reproducible surface characteristics, further supporting its applicability in surface engineering for PV systems. Overall, the observed modifications in wettability though remaining below the hydrophobic regime demonstrate that the combination of Al₂O₃ sol–gel deposition and oleic acid functionalization effectively tunes the surface energy and interfacial behavior of the lamellae. These tunable characteristics are highly relevant for reducing dust adhesion and improving the anti-soiling potential of PV surfaces in real-world conditions. UV-Vis transmission spectra of uncoated glass slides and Al₂O₃ sol-coated samples (CL20, CL40, CL80), including the sample functionalized with 1.5 wt% oleic acid (CL40_OA1.5), are seen in Fig. 5. The results demonstrate that optical transmission in the visible range (400–800 nm) improves with increasing coating duration. The CL20 sample exhibited the highest transmittance (> 80%). However, a slight reduction in transmittance was observed at longer coating durations and following oleic acid (OA) functionalization. Functionalization with OA appears to introduce additional absorption or scattering, reducing optical clarity compared to non-functionalized CL40. UV spectra of lamellae treated with Al2O3 sol for 20 s, 40 s, and 80 s and a sample treated with Al2O3 sol for 40 s after functionalization with a solution containing 1.5% oleic acid by mass. Based on the characterization results, the sample coated with Al₂O₃ sol for 40 s and subsequently functionalized with a 1.5 wt% oleic acid solution was identified as the most suitable. This configuration was selected as the key parameter for the development of test panels used in both laboratory-scale and outdoor environment experiments. The amount of soil (dust) that accumulates on the surface of PV panels varies depending on environmental conditions. The rate at which soil (dust) is deposited depends on various factors, such as particle size, temperature, relative humidity, ambient soil (dust) concentration and wind speed. Geographical location, proximity to industrial areas and distance from the sea also significantly affect soil (dust) deposition levels in solar power plants. In this study, key parameters (temperature, humidity, ambient soil (dust) concentration and wind speed) were varied under controlled laboratory conditions to assess their effects. Untreated glass samples were compared with test panels that had been coated for 40 s using a functional solution containing 1.5 wt% oleic acid. A CCD was employed to plan a four-factor, three-level experimental design. The results of these experiments were analyzed using response surface methodology (RSM). The experimental parameters are given in Table 2. In the test setup detailed in previous sections, target conditions for temperature, humidity, and wind speed were first established and stabilized. Once equilibrium was reached, a certain amount of soil (dust) was introduced into the system. The installation was then maintained under these conditions for one hour. At the conclusion of this period, the quantity of soil (dust) deposited on the untreated glass and the functionally coated panels were quantified. In all experiments, consistently lower levels of soil (dust) accumulation were observed on functionally coated panels. Therefore, instead of data obtained for untreated and treated glass separately, the differences in soil (dust) accumulation were considered. RSM is a set of mathematical and statistical techniques that are useful for modelling and analyzing the influence of various independent variables on a dependent variable. In this study, RSM was employed to investigate the impact of environmental factors on the difference in dust deposition between coated and functionalized samples and untreated glass in a controlled laboratory environment. In RSM, quadratic models are commonly used because they capture not only linear relationships between the variables and the response but also account for curvature and interaction effects. This provides a more accurate and flexible representation of complex systems. Equation (1) shows the model equations that represent the interactions of the variables. where Y is response variable (e.g., soil (dust) accumulation), βo, βi, βii and βij are intercept term, coefficients for linear effects, coefficients for quadratic (squared) effects and coefficients for interaction effects between variables, respectively. Also, Xi, Xj are independent variables, ε is random error term and k is number of factors in the model. The data collected were analyzed using Minitab version 22.3 and the following regression model was derived according to quadratic models: where: a = temperature (°C); b = relative humidity (%); c = initial soil (dust) load (g); d = wind speed (km/h). The regression model explains a high proportion of the variability in soil (dust) deposition differences on glass and treated glass, with an R² value of 91.40%. An adjusted R-square value of 83.87% indicated that the predictors included contribute significantly. Furthermore, a predicted R-squared value of 64.69% confirmed that the model has good predictive ability without overfitting. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) results are shown in Table 3. ANOVA results showed that the overall model is statistically significant (p = 0.000007). The linear terms for temperature (p = 0.000081), initial soil (dust) load (p = 0.000003) and wind speed (P = 0.000001) make a significant contribution to the model. However, relative humidity does not demonstrate significant individual effects, and none of the square terms are significant (p > 0.9). Also, only initial soil (dust) load (g)*wind speed (km/h) has significant individual effects on response in 2-way interaction terms. Figure 6 presents six contour plots illustrating the interactive effects of diverse environmental factors, including temperature, relative humidity, initial soil (dust) load, and wind speed, on the ” soil (dust) Accumulation Difference.” Each plot is intended to illustrate the relationship between two independent variables, whilst ensuring that all other factors remain constant. This approach is intended to provide significant information regarding their combined effects on the effectiveness of the treatment in relation to soil (dust) accumulation. The color gradients in each plot are indicative of the magnitude of the soil (dust) accumulation difference; lighter shades indicate a lower difference, and darker shades indicate a higher difference. Interaction contour plots of the effects of environmental parameters on the soil accumulation difference: temperature and relative humidity (a), temperature and initial soil (dust) load (b), temperature and wind speed (c), relative humidity and initial soil (dust) load (d), relative humidity and wind speed (e), and initial soil (dust) load and wind speed (f). The response variable in this analysis is the difference in soil (dust) accumulation obtained by subtracting the amount of soil (dust) retained on an uncoated (unmodified) surface from the amount retained on a surface modified with wettability-tuned Al2O3-based coatings. This difference is an indicator of the antifouling effectiveness of the coating under changing environmental conditions. Figure 6a shows the interaction between temperature, relative humidity, and the response variable. Under constant initial soil (dust) load (2.75 g) and wind speed (17.5 km/h), the soil (dust) accumulation difference decreases as temperature increases. The effect of relative humidity is relatively limited, but a slight increase in soil (dust) accumulation difference is observed with increasing humidity. This trend can be attributed to the decreased soil (dust) adhesion at higher temperatures due to drier surface conditions, which may increase the self-cleaning effect of the coating. Figure 6b shows the interaction between temperature, initial soil (dust) load, and soil (dust) accumulation difference. With constant relative humidity and wind speed, the soil accumulation difference decreases significantly with increasing temperature, while it increases with higher initial soil (dust) load. The highest soil (dust) accumulation difference occurs at low temperature and high soil (dust) load, indicating that the coating is particularly effective under intense soil (dust) exposure when the temperature is low. Figure 6c investigates the interaction between temperature, wind speed, and soil (dust) accumulation difference. At constant relative humidity and initial soil (dust) load, both increasing temperature and wind speed contribute to the reduction in soil (dust) accumulation difference. The effect of wind speed is particularly pronounced because lower wind speeds result in higher soil (dust) accumulation differences. This indicates that the contribution of the coating to soil (dust) reduction becomes more critical when there is insufficient airflow. Figure 6d shows the interaction between relative humidity, initial soil (dust) load, and soil (dust) accumulation difference. While temperature and wind speed are kept constant, an increase in initial soil (dust) load led to a significant increase in soil (dust) accumulation difference. In this case, the effect of relative humidity is relatively limited. These results indicate that the effectiveness of the coating becomes more pronounced under higher soil (dust) load conditions. Figure 6e shows the combined effects of relative humidity and wind speed. With constant temperature and soil (dust) load, the soil (dust) deposition difference decreases with increasing wind speed, while relative humidity has a relatively small effect. This finding reinforces the importance of wind in helping to remove soil (dust) from both surfaces, although the coating helps to a limited extent in maintaining lower deposition under calm conditions. Finally, Fig. 6f examines the interaction between the initial soil (dust) load and wind speed. As expected, the soil (dust) deposition difference increases with higher soil (dust) load and decreases with increasing wind speed. The maximum difference is observed under conditions of low wind speed and high soil (dust) load, clearly showing the opposing effects of these two parameters. This indicates that under harsh environmental conditions such as low wind speeds and high soil (dust) loads the application of a wettability-tuned coating surface treatment significantly mitigates soil (dust) deposition. When all effects are considered, the parameters where coating effectiveness stand out are high initial soil (dust) load and low wind speed. Conversely, higher wind speed and higher temperature reduce this difference, probably due to the natural cleaning effects acting on both surfaces. Relative humidity shows a less pronounced effect compared to the other factors. Overall, these findings provide valuable insights into how surface coating performance varies under different environmental conditions and highlight the potential to reduce soil (dust) accumulation on solar panels. In this study, two types of Mini-PV modules were prepared: the Reference Panel, incorporating standard glass without any surface treatment, and the Sample Panel, featuring glass coated with aluminum oxide (Al₂O₃) and functionalized with oleic acid. Both panels were positioned within a specialized experimental setup that enabled precise control of environmental parameters, including temperature, relative humidity, initial soil (dust) concentration, and wind speed. Prior to the initiation of each experiment, the system was allowed to reach thermal and environmental equilibrium. At the start of the experiment (t = 0 min), the power output of both the reference and sample panels was precisely measured and recorded by acquiring voltage and current data. To account for temporal variations in instantaneous power (calculated as Current × Voltage), the total energy produced over a fixed interval (1 min) was determined by integrating the area under the power–time curve. Following this initial measurement, a predetermined amount of soil (dust) defined by the experimental design was uniformly applied to the panel surfaces under equilibrium conditions. The system was then held under these conditions for a duration of 1 h (60 min). At the end of this period, the power output of both panels was re-measured using the same procedure. The percentage loss in power generation efficiency for each panel was subsequently calculated based on the initial and final measurements, using Eq. (3). where E initial represents the total energy produced at the beginning, and E final represents the total energy produced after 1 h. Unlike the previous section, where treated and untreated glass surfaces were evaluated separately, a four-factor, three-level RSM was employed in this section. The response variable was defined as the difference in percentage efficiency loss between the untreated and surface-functionalized panels. The results obtained are summarized in Table 2. To investigate the influence of environmental parameters on this response, a quadratic polynomial regression model was developed using the Minitab statistical analysis software. The independent variables included temperature (°C), relative humidity (%), initial soil (dust) load (g) and wind speed (km/s). To simplify the model presentation, these variables were coded as follows: temperature = a, relative humidity = b, soil (dust) load = c and wind speed = d. The resulting regression model is expressed as follows: The model yielded a coefficient of determination (R²) of 0.837, indicating that approximately 83.7% of the variation in the difference in efficiency loss between panels was explained by the fitted regression model. However, the adjusted R² value was significantly lower at 0.694, indicating that although the model fits the available data well, some terms may not contribute significantly to the explanatory power of the model after accounting for the number of terms included. Moreover, the predicted R² was markedly lower at 25.1%, indicating potential limitations in the model’s ability to generalize to new data. This discrepancy may be attributed to factors such as multicollinearity, overfitting, or insufficient representation of the experimental space. The results of ANOVA, summarized in Table 4, provide important data with which to evaluate the statistical significance of the model components. The obtained regression model was found to be statistically significant (F = 5.86, p = 0.00059), confirming that the independent variables have a significant collective effect on the difference in efficiency loss. This indicates that the effectiveness of the coating varies under different environmental conditions. Among the linear terms, initial soil (dust) load (p = 0.03234) and wind speed (p = 0.02366) were statistically significant. Among the square terms, (temperature)2, relative (humidity)2 and (wind speed)2 was significant, indicating nonlinear effects. Several interaction terms exhibited highly significant effects, particularly temperature × wind speed (p = 0.00167) and relative humidity × soil (dust) load (p = 0.00083). The lack of fit test was insignificant (p = 0.62921), indicating a good fit between the model and the experimental data. Interaction contour plots of the effects of environmental parameters on the Efficiency loss difference: temperature and relative humidity (a), temperature and initial soil (dust) load (b), temperature and wind speed (c), relative humidity and initial soil (dust) load (d), relative humidity and wind speed (e), and initial soil (dust) load and wind speed (f). This study investigates the differential efficiency loss in Mini-PV modules fabricated with untreated glass versus those incorporating surface-functionalized glass (Al₂O₃-coated and oleic acid-functionalized), based on energy measurements collected over a one-hour period. The percentage efficiency loss was calculated using the initial and final energy output values for each panel type, and the difference between them served as an indicator of the effectiveness of the surface modification. Response surface contour plots were employed to visualize the influence of interactions among temperature, relative humidity, initial soil (dust) load, and wind speed on this efficiency loss difference (Fig. 7a–f). Figure 7a illustrates that the greatest performance enhancement resulting from surface functionalization occurs under two distinct environmental conditions: at moderate relative humidity (~ 60%) combined with high temperatures (> 35 °C), and at low temperatures (~ 25 °C) with elevated humidity levels (> 57%). This behavior is attributed to the functionalized panels’ superior ability to maintain optical clarity under such conditions, thereby resulting in a more pronounced efficiency difference compared to untreated panels. Similarly, Fig. 7b shows that the efficiency loss difference increases as the initial soil (dust) load increases above 1.5 g, especially at high temperatures. This may mean that the surface treatments are particularly effective in conditions of heavy fouling and prevent soil (dust) from adhering strongly to the panel. The reducing effect of wind speed on the efficiency loss differences is clearly reflected in Fig. 7c and f. Figure 7c shows that at high temperatures and low wind speeds, functionalized panels provide an efficiency advantage over untreated panels. However, when the wind speed increases above 15 km/h, this advantage decreases, probably because the wind helps soil (dust) removal on both types of surfaces. Figure 7d highlights that the combination of high humidity and high soil (dust) load results in the highest difference in efficiency loss, with humidity worsening the fouling on untreated panels, while functional coatings resist such effects. In Fig. 7e, increasing wind speed in humid conditions narrows the performance gap again, showing that airflow effectively reduces moisture-related sticking. Finally, the influence of wind speed and initial dust load under stagnant and dust-prone environmental conditions was demonstrated in Fig. 7f. The contour distribution indicated that the efficiency-loss difference was maximized when the dust load was high and the wind speed was low, showing that limited airflow allowed greater retention and accumulation of dust on the panel surface. As wind speed increased, a gradual reduction in the efficiency-loss difference was observed, which was attributed to the partial removal or redistribution of loosely attached particles. Overall, these trends indicated that measurable resistance to dust-induced performance degradation was provided by the functionalized glass surfaces, resulting in enhanced stability and reduced efficiency loss under hot, humid, and dust-rich environmental conditions. In this section, it is aimed to assess the real-world operational performance of PV mini-modules equipped with the functionalized coatings, thereby determining the practical relevance and field effectiveness of the proposed anti-soiling surface. A total of six laminated PV mini modules were employed in the outdoor experiments conducted under real-world conditions. Four of these mini-modules (PV1, PV2, PV3, and PV4) were laminated with functionalized glass surfaces, whereas the remaining two (PV5 and PV6) were laminated with standard uncoated glass. However, no reliable data were obtained from PV4 due to an electrical connection failure that occurred during the lamination and installation stage. The malfunction resulted in intermittent current transmission and ultimately prevented stable measurements, indicating that the PV cell was likely damaged or electrically disconnected. Consequently, PV4 was excluded from all graphical evaluations and statistical analyses. Data collection was performed between July 15 and August 12, with measurements recorded daily between 07:00 and 18:00. During this period, current, voltage, and panel temperature were monitored at 20-second intervals. Each mini PV module consisted of a single 8 × 16 cm PV cell laminated with a 10 × 18 cm glass cover prepared with either functionalized or unfunctionalized surfaces. The experimentally measured operating parameters of the laminated PV mini modules are summarized in Table 5. Tempered glass differs from regular (annealed) glass in its significantly higher mechanical strength, impact resistance, and thermal shock tolerance, which are achieved through controlled heat-treatment processes. Tempered glass also exhibits a characteristic residual compressive stress on its surface, which is introduced during the rapid quenching stage of heat treatment. This compressive stress layer not only increases fracture resistance but also ensures that, in the event of breakage, the glass fragments into small granular pieces rather than sharp shards, providing enhanced safety and durability under outdoor environmental loads. Although both glasses exhibit similar optical transmittance, their mechanical and thermal properties can influence coating adhesion, durability, and surface stress distribution. For this reason, both tempered and regular glass substrates were included in the preparation of the laminated PV mini-modules to evaluate whether the functionalized surfaces provide consistent anti-soiling performance across different glass types. For performance evaluation, four representative days were randomly selected: July 17, July 21, July 30, and August 6. On these dates, the power outputs of the coated and uncoated Mini-PV modules were compared. Hourly average power values and total daily energy production were calculated and are graphically presented in Fig. 8. The corresponding numerical results are summarized in Table 6. Average power output of coated (PV1, PV2, PV3) and uncoated (PV5, PV6) Mini-PV modules. The values represent hourly-averaged power measurements recorded during the outdoor tests. Hourly average power on July 17 (a), July 21 (b), July 30 (c), and August 6 (d). According to the results, the coated mini-PV modules generated higher power output on July 17 and 21. On July 30, no significant performance difference was observed between the coated and uncoated mini-PV modules. Conversely, on August 6, the uncoated modules exhibited higher power output. This behaviour can be attributed to several environmental factors that are known to influence outdoor PV system performance. Several environmental and operational mechanisms are known to amplify power losses in PV modules under real-world outdoor exposure. First, dust accumulation not only obstructs incoming irradiance but also increases the operating temperature of PV modules by forming a thermally insulating layer. This dual mechanism has been experimentally shown to reduce PV output at increasing dust mass, particularly under high ambient temperatures. Second, high relative humidity promotes the cementation of dust particles, forming hardened or mud-like deposits that persist on the glass surface and cause more severe optical attenuation than dry dust alone38. Third, long-term exposure to wind-driven particulates gradually abrades the glass surface; this abrasion increases surface roughness and decreases optical transmittance, resulting in irreversible efficiency degradation39. Furthermore, non-uniform dust deposition can induce electrical mismatch and partial shading losses, which lead to highly non-linear reductions in power output. As summarized in the mismatch-loss literature, localized shading or soiling may produce disproportionately large power losses even when only a small portion of the surface is affected40. Collectively, these factors indicate that the observed variations in power output during outdoor testing arise from the combined effects of soiling behavior, humidity-driven cementation, thermal impacts, surface abrasion, and mismatch phenomena rather than dust deposition alone. Figure 9 presents the daily total power output of the mini-PV modules alongside the corresponding daily total solar irradiation measured between July 15 and August 12. Examination of the graph reveals a noticeable decline in the power output of the coated PV1, PV2, and PV3 mini-PV modules starting in early August, whereas the power output of the uncoated PV5 and PV6 mini-PV modules remained relatively stable throughout the same period. Total power generated between July 15 and August 12. This performance degradation is attributed to the interaction between elevated ambient temperatures and the oleic acid-based hydrophobic coating. It is hypothesized that airborne dust and organic particulates accumulated on the functionalized surface, increasing contamination, reducing light transmittance, and thereby negatively impacting overall energy efficiency. To verify this hypothesis, the experimental setup was cleaned with water, and follow-up measurements were conducted on August 18, 2023. As shown in Fig. 10b, the hourly average current values indicate that, post-cleaning, the coated mini-PV modules produced higher current outputs than the uncoated ones. This confirms that surface contamination had a substantial adverse effect on the performance of coated mini-PV modules. Additionally, Fig. 10a, which presents current data recorded on July 17 under initially clean conditions, further supports this conclusion, demonstrating that the coated PV mini-PV modules initially outperformed the uncoated counterparts. Hourly average current values. Average current on July 17 (mA) (a), average current on August 18 (mA) (b). This study compared the performance of mini-PV modules with coated and uncoated glass surfaces under real outdoor conditions. Coated mini-PV modules generally produce higher power and current outputs, especially when they were clean. However, from early August, the performance of coated cells declined, likely due to environmental factors such as high temperatures, airborne dust, and organic particulates interacting with the coating. After cleaning, the coated cells regained their superior performance, highlighting the importance of surface cleanliness for maintaining efficiency. These results underscore the need to consider both environmental sensitivity and maintenance requirements when evaluating surface coating technologies for photovoltaic systems. The comparative findings presented in Table 7 demonstrate clear differences among anti-soiling (AS) and surface-modified coating technologies in terms of wettability control, optical behaviour, environmental durability, and their resulting impact on outdoor PV performance. The hybrid Al₂O₃–oleic acid (OA) coating developed in this study exhibits a balanced performance profile, characterized by enhanced surface wettability rather than strong hydrophobicity combined with low optical loss and measurable outdoor power improvement. As shown in Table 1, the Al₂O₃–OA coating provides a moderate contact angle (~ 75°), effectively lowers dust accumulation in indoor soiling-chamber tests, and maintains optical transmittance above 80%, leading to a stable and reproducible outdoor power gain. This wettability-enhanced behavior distinguishes it from superhydrophobic fluoropolymer coatings, which achieve WCA values exceeding 150° but degrade rapidly under abrasion, UV exposure, and repeated environmental cycles. Table 7 additionally shows that PDMS/TiO₂–SnO₂ nano-ceramic coatings deliver strong short-term benefits, reporting efficiency gains above 5%, largely due to photocatalytic self-cleaning. Nevertheless, their long-term durability under combined stressors such as humidity, UV radiation, and abrasive forces remains uncertain. Likewise, commercial hydrophobic AS coatings demonstrate significant cleaning gains during wind and rain events but quickly lose performance in humid regions, where their water-repellent properties diminish. In contrast, silica-based AR/AS coatings maintain excellent long-term optical stability throughout multi-year outdoor testing, although their limited wettability control results in only moderate anti-soiling behavior. Chemically etched micro/nano-textured glass, based purely on morphological modification rather than surface chemistry, exhibits reduced dust adhesion and stable performance; however, the absence of controlled wettability limits their self-cleaning potential. This study presents a novel approach for enhancing photovoltaic (PV) panel performance by employing oleic acid-functionalized Al₂O₃ nanoparticle coatings as a passive anti- soil (dust) strategy. Unlike conventional methods, the study explores multiple coating conditions by varying both the application duration (20, 40, and 80 s) and oleic acid concentration (0.5%, 1.5%, and 4.5%). The optimal combination was identified as a 40-second spray duration with a 1.5% oleic acid solution. Laboratory experiments demonstrated that the coated surfaces accumulated, on average, 6.9 mg/cm² less dust compared to uncoated surfaces, translating into a 0.6%–3.0% reduction in energy efficiency losses. Field tests conducted under real environmental conditions revealed that coated panels initially delivered higher daily energy output, producing 0.5–0.8 W more power per day than their uncoated counterparts during certain periods. However, a decline in performance was observed in the coated panels starting in early August, attributed to environmental stressors such as elevated temperatures (> 35 °C), low wind speeds (< 10 km/h), and the presence of airborne hydrophobic pollutants (e.g., vehicle exhaust, industrial emissions, and agricultural particles). These contaminants adhered to the hydrophobic surface, impairing optical transmittance and reducing power output. Notably, cleaning the panel surfaces restored their performance, confirming the reversible nature of the degradation caused by surface contamination. In conclusion, oleic acid-modified Al₂O₃ coatings show potential as a passive anti-soiling solution, especially in arid and dust-prone regions with limited water resources. However, their long-term effectiveness is affected by both particulate dust and hydrophobic atmospheric pollutants. Thus, while these coatings are promising, sustainable and consistent performance will require periodic cleaning, enhanced coating durability, and the development of alternative or hybrid protective strategies. In future studies, the performance of the proposed coating technique will be benchmarked against established nanoparticle-based coatings, including lotus-leaf-inspired hierarchical textured surfaces, grain-structured coatings, and systems modified with suitable surface-active agents, in order to more comprehensively evaluate its comparative advantages and potential application areas. It should be noted that this study was conducted under conditions representative of summer dust-loading, and winter-related environmental factors, including reduced temperatures, elevated humidity, and snow accumulation, were not assessed due to laboratory limitations. Future studies incorporating multi-seasonal and multi-location evaluations would provide a more comprehensive understanding of the coating’s environmental robustness. No datasets were generated or used in this study. All analyses were performed using experimentally obtained measurements. The original online version of this Article was revised: In the original version of this Article the Funding section was omitted. The Funding section now reads: “The present study received financial assistance from the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK) under Grant No. 122E197. The authors express their gratitude to TUBITAK for financial support.” Franjić, S. & Unleashing Sustainable Energy. The Sun, earth’s largest and most powerfu source. J. Sustainable Dev.4 (2), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.56388/susd230615 (2023). Article Google Scholar Özbeyaz, A. 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Anti-reflective and anti-soiling properties of a KleanBoost™, a superhydrophobic nano-textured coating for solar glass, In: IEEE 44th Photovoltaic Specialist Conference (PVSC), 2285–2290,(IEEE, 2017)https://doi.org/10.1109/PVSC.2017.8366777 Download references The present study received financial assistance from the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK) under Grant No. 122E197. The authors express their gratitude to TUBITAK for financial support. Vocational School of Technical Sciences, Department of Electricity and Energy Technologies, Konya Technical University, Konya, Türkiye Mustafa Arslan Vocational School of Technical Sciences, Department of Chemistry and Chemical Processing Technologies, Konya Technical University, Konya, Türkiye İlyas Deveci Vocational School of Technical Sciences, Department of Electronics and Automation Technologies, Konya Technical University, Konya, Türkiye Cemile Arslan Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Selçuk University, Konya, Türkiye Mehmet Çunkaş Search author on:PubMedGoogle Scholar Search author on:PubMedGoogle Scholar Search author on:PubMedGoogle Scholar Search author on:PubMedGoogle Scholar MA, CA, and ID performed the computational work, prepared figures and/or tables, and contributed to writing the main manuscript. MA and ID conceived and designed the experiments, performed the experiments, and analyzed the data. MÇ contributed to writing, reviewing, and editing the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final version of the manuscript. Correspondence to Mehmet Çunkaş. The authors declare no competing interests. Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. 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New York residents would soon be able to hang small solar panels from their windows or balconies under a measure headed for Gov. Kathy Hochul’s desk. The state Legislature approved the so-called balcony solar bill late last week, paving the way for New Yorkers to be able to legally plug the portable power panels into a standard outlet without having to get approval from the local utility company beforehand. The bill — titled the Solar Up Now NY Act, or SUNNY Act — would authorize plug-in solar panels that can put out up to 1,200 watts of power and shave money off utility bills, so long as they comply with fire codes and are approved by an accredited testing laboratory. Assemblymember Emily Gallagher, a Democrat from Brooklyn, said balcony solar panels have taken off in some urban centers. She said it’s time for New York City to do the same. “I know New York City’s itching to do it, as well as several of the other cities in the state,” said Gallagher, who sponsored the bill. “And it’s going to allow people to create just a small amount of green renewable energy themselves that they can use in their own house.” The legislation, should Hochul sign it into law, would allow apartment dwellers to take advantage of solar power. As it stands, the state’s solar-power rules cater to larger-scale solar installations for multi-dwelling buildings or standalone homes. Utility companies have fought similar bills that have popped up in more than two dozen other states, arguing that the plug-in panels should be subject to connection agreements if they’re hooked into the state’s power grid. But ConEd issued a memo in support of the New York bill, saying the measure strikes an “appropriate balance.” “The bill aligns with enabling greater customer access to small-scale clean energy solutions while continuing to uphold essential standards for safety and grid reliability,” according to ConEd’s memo, which was circulated to lawmakers. “Because these portable solar generation devices are very small, they pose minimal engineering or grid impact risk.” The New York bill does not require plug-in panel owners to enter into such an agreement with their utility company, though it does require them to notify the utility within 30 days of installation. It also doesn’t require landlords or homeowner associations to permit the panels. Hochul hasn’t taken a position on the bill. She has until the end of the year to sign it into law or veto it. A spokesperson said she will review the legislation. WXXI News journalists work every day to meet the challenges of our times with trustworthy reporting and programming. But we don’t do it alone – this community has always been our backbone, standing strong with us.
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A team of students from Delhi Technological University (DTU) secured second place at the prestigious Rajasthan Green Innovation Challenge, held at Malaviya National Institute of Technology Jaipur, for developing an AI-powered bio-solar panel. The team received a cash prize of Rs 15 lakh and was felicitated by Bhajan Lal Sharma.
The team, led by students Shubhika and Pradeep Patel under the guidance of Jai Gopal Sharma from DTU’s Department of Biotechnology, developed the sustainable energy solution using organic waste-based technology. The innovation aims to enhance solar power generation while promoting environmental sustainability. Prateek Sharma, Vice-Chancellor of DTU, said, “The AI-powered bio-solar panel developed by our students is an inspiring example of how technology and environmental responsibility can come together to address global challenges. India must demonstrate to the world, particularly the Global South, that development goals can be achieved without compromising sustainability.”
The Tribune, now published from Chandigarh, started publication on February 2, 1881, in Lahore (now in Pakistan). It was started by Sardar Dyal Singh Majithia, a public-spirited philanthropist, and is run by a trust comprising five eminent persons as trustees.
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War in Iran and the energy transition What was achieved in Santa Marta Green transition in Latin America Fighting climate change is becoming a legal obligation In recent months, the global energy transition has encountered new difficulties. After the outbreak of the war in Iran, the effective closure of the Strait of Hormuz affected the delivery of nearly one-fifth of global seaborne oil and liquefied natural gas (LNG) supplies. Asian countries suffered the most, and to conserve fuel, governments across the continent shortened the workweek, introduced remote work policies, and temporarily shifted schools to remote learning. In the long term, this crisis has only accelerated the transition to renewable energy. After all, solar, wind, and hydroelectric power plants do not require fuel in order to operate. In the short term, however, there is a risk that the energy transition could slow down as countries turn to coal as a temporary substitute. The war disrupted supplies not only of fossil fuels but also of aluminum needed for solar panels. It also accelerated inflation and forced some countries to partially replace gas-fired power generation with more polluting coal-fired generation, since coal supplies generally do not pass through the Strait of Hormuz. In addition, some fossil fuel producers that do not depend on the Strait were tempted to take advantage of high prices by increasing production. Solar panels in Greece EU Because of the crisis in Iran, faint calls in support of coal could also be heard in Europe, although the continent has suffered far less from the current energy crisis than Asia has. For example, the Italian parliament approved postponing the country’s coal phaseout to 2038 (though coal accounts for only about 1.5% of electricity generation in the country). German Chancellor Friedrich Merz did not rule out the possibility that some German coal-fired power plants would have to remain in operation for longer than planned but did not call into question the country’s target date of 2038 for phasing out coal entirely. Coal generation still makes up about one-fifth of electricity production in Germany. At the global level, the statistics are far from alarming. In March and April 2026, coal-fired power generation worldwide was only 1% higher than during the same period in 2025. At the same time, wind and solar generated more electricity than gas for the first time ever. Gas-fired generation in March and April remained at the same level as during the corresponding periods last year, while wind and solar generation increased by nearly 8%. In its report last year, the International Energy Agency (IEA) projected that coal demand would peak before the end of this decade even if current energy policies remain unchanged. Additionally, according to the agency’s estimates, demand for oil and gas could begin to decline after 2030 and 2035, respectively, if countries implement their announced energy policy measures. So far, there appears to be little reason so far to revise these expectations. Moreover, over the past month, two significant developments have occurred that could weaken the position of fossil fuels in the medium and long term and, consequently, bring forward peak demand: the world’s first global conference on phasing out fossil fuels, held in Santa Marta, Colombia, and the adoption of a UN resolution supporting countries’ obligation to protect the environment from greenhouse gas emissions, appear to signal the the future course of global energy consumption. At the end of April, Santa Marta hosted the first conference on phasing out fossil fuels. Representatives from 57 countries took part. The four largest polluters — China, the United States, India, and Russia, which together accounted for more than 53% of all global greenhouse gas emissions in 2024 — were neither invited nor present at the conference. They are also the world’s largest producers and consumers of fossil fuels. The four largest polluters – China, the United States, India, and Russia – did not attend the conference However, using data from the Energy Institute, it is easy to calculate the significant role that the countries represented in Santa Marta collectively play when it comes to international energy policy and global energy consumption. Together, they consume more than a quarter of the world’s oil, more than one-fifth of its gas, and nearly one-tenth of its coal. These countries also carry considerable weight in the global economy, accounting for roughly one-third of global GDP. This is not surprising given that the participants included the UK, along with some of the largest economies of the EU. Some major fossil fuel producers were also represented, including Canada, Norway, Brazil, and Nigeria. Ending the use of coal, oil, and gas is the most important condition for overcoming the climate crisis. In 2024, the burning of fossil fuels accounted for 74.5% of global greenhouse gas emissions (excluding land use, land-use change, and forestry). Even before the official part of the conference began in Santa Marta, around 400 scientists from around the world discussed how countries could phase out fossil fuels by supporting and retraining workers in the fossil fuel sector during the transition, banning the construction of new coal and oil-and-gas infrastructure, and ending fossil fuel subsidies. The document also proposes imposing levies on fossil fuels in order to help finance the green energy transition. The document places major emphasis on justice. For example, it notes that local communities should be involved in planning and that countries of the Global North should compensate countries of the Global South for the damage caused by emissions in previous decades. The measures it proposes include debt relief, the expansion of international climate financing, and technology transfers. Countries of the Global South are especially important for the transition, as they are home to 78% of the world’s fossil fuel reserves. For many of them, the extraction of coal, oil, and gas remains an extremely attractive economic prospect. The next conference on phasing out fossil fuels will take place in Tuvalu, one of the countries most at risk of flooding before the end of this century. When Australia launched a visa program in 2025 to relocate residents of Tuvalu to Australia, more than 3,000 people applied to move within the first four days. The country’s population is only around 10,000. The first countries to organize the conference on phasing out fossil fuels were Colombia and the Netherlands. Colombia ranks 13th in the world in coal production and 5th in coal exports while also producing enough oil and gas for fossil fuels to account for 35% of the country’s exports and around 10% of fiscal revenues. Nevertheless, Colombia’s fossil fuel industry is clearly in decline. Production in the country’s main coal-producing region, La Guajira, peaked in 2012, and buyers from Chile to the EU are already moving away from the fuel. Efforts to redirect Colombian coal exports toward Asia are constrained by high transportation costs. Without the discovery of new deposits, oil production is expected to cease in roughly 30 years, while gas reserves could be depleted in as little as 6.5 years. Wind turbines EU Hydropower forms the backbone of electricity generation in Colombia. Since the year 2000, hydroelectric plants have consistently accounted for between 50% and 80% of generation. At the same time, the share of electricity generation from solar and wind energy rose from zero to 5% in less than five years. In general, Latin America is rarely mentioned in discussions about the future of the energy sector, yet many countries in the region are demonstrating remarkable success in the green transition. For example, a little over a decade ago, Uruguay suffered from frequent power outages and was forced to ration electricity consumption due to the country’s heavy reliance on hydroelectric power plants, which are highly dependent on El Niño – the periodic warming of surface waters in the equatorial Pacific Ocean, which brings abundant rainfall to Uruguay. In dry years, domestic generation is insufficient, while imported fuel is not always available in adequate quantities. However, this problem was resolved through the large-scale development of wind and solar generation. Today, these renewable sources account for 46% of all electricity production in the country, while the remainder comes from hydropower and biofuels. Chile is not far behind, with solar and wind power already generating 38% of the country’s electricity. Coal mining has almost completely ceased, and many coal-fired power plants have shut down. The remaining plants are scheduled to close by 2040 under voluntary agreements between the Chilean government and plant owners. The reason for these changes is purely economic: domestically produced coal has become too expensive, while imported Colombian coal is increasingly unable to compete on price with solar and wind. Electric transport is also expanding rapidly in the country. Nearly two-thirds of Santiago’s buses are now electric. With oil prices remaining high, as they did after the outbreak of the war in Iran, each electric bus in Santiago saves about $26,000 per year on fuel costs. With oil prices high, each electric bus in Santiago saves about $26,000 per year on fuel costs In the region’s larger economies, solar and wind generation also account for significant shares of electricity production — for example, 27% in Brazil and 13% in Mexico. It is worth noting that all of these countries – Chile, Uruguay, Brazil, and Mexico – took part in the conference in Santa Marta. At the global level, however, the green transition depends less on Latin America than on developments in Asia, which has become the world’s leading region for both the production and consumption of fossil fuels. At the same time, China not only produces and consumes more coal than any other country, but also leads the world in installed renewable energy capacity, electricity generation from solar and wind power, and the manufacturing of renewable energy equipment. Until now, renewables have not fundamentally altered the structure of China’s energy system but have instead largely helped meet growing energy demand. However, signs of coming changes are now beginning to emerge. In 2025, China and India jointly recorded a decline in coal-fired electricity generation for the first time in decades amid record growth in renewable energy capacity. At the same time, every fifth kilowatt-hour in China is already generated either by solar or wind power. For comparison, in 2010 these energy sources accounted for only 1% of electricity generation. In India, the corresponding figures are 14% and 2%, respectively. On May 20, the UN General Assembly published a resolution that endorsed the advisory opinion issued by the International Court of Justice last July stating that countries have an obligation to protect the environment from greenhouse gas emissions. According to the same opinion, if countries violate these obligations, they bear legal responsibility and may be required to cease unlawful actions, provide guarantees that such violations will not recur, and pay compensation for damages. The debate surrounding the resolution was intense. A total of 141 countries voted in favor, while 8 voted against (including the United States and Russia, which rank second and fourth in the world respectively in greenhouse gas emissions). Another 28 countries abstained, including India, which ranks third in emissions. Of course, the opinion from the International Court of Justice is not legally binding. However, it is already being used in climate-related lawsuits around the world. The resolution also sends an additional signal: combating the climate crisis is becoming a legal obligation for countries rather than a matter of political preference. We depend on contributions from readers like you Sign up for regular contributions. By subscribing, you agree to The Insider's Terms of Service and Privacy Policy, as well as Google's reCAPTCHA terms (Privacy Policy, Terms of Service). By subscribing, you agree to The Insider's Terms of Service and Privacy Policy, as well as Google's reCAPTCHA terms (Privacy Policy, Terms of Service).
JARRETTSVILLE, Md. — A scenic 122-acre field in rural Jarrettsville would become home to 34 football fields’ worth of solar panels and chain-link fence for the next 40 years if developers get their way within sight of Jody and John Varvaris’ backyard. Opposing solar farm in Jarrettsville
The land is part of a multigenerational family farm with a rich past, and at least for one family member, an even richer future.
“Then when the surveyors showed up, we found out it was… the farmer, my brother, who was doing solar panels,” Jody told us.
“So he inherited the land? That’s how he has the right to do this?” we asked.
“He did,” she responded. “Yes.”
“And how many siblings are on his side in this matter?”
“None. There’s five of us total counting my brother, and nobody’s on his side.”
Signs have gone up surrounding the site in opposition to the solar farm, and an online petition has taken off.
“We have over 800 people signing. I haven’t checked in the last half hour, but it’s been going up, and that’s in three days,” said Jody’s husband, John Varvaris. “We had a community last Thursday, had 90 people there, all of which are opposed to this development.”
Varvaris says county zoning would not allow what amounts to an industrial use on agricultural land, but state lawmakers passed the Renewable Energy Certainty Act last year, which bypasses that authority and leaves it up to the Maryland Public Service Commission.
The controversial law allows solar farms on up to five percent of all of the agricultural land in any given county before local zoning has to be consulted.
Now, opponents will have to argue the potential negative impacts such a project could have on local water bodies, wildlife, and the environment in hopes that Big Brother doesn’t rubber-stamp a project enabled by Jody Varvaris’ younger brother, who stands to profit at the rest of the family’s expense.
“I grew up in the house next door,” said Jody. “My sister lives there now. We’re here. My daughter lives next door, and these neighbors I’ve known for 65 years, so it’s just hard.” About WMAR
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With explanations, engaging Q&As, and lively conversations, the podcast provides valuable insights into the intersection of technology and society. The Food Detectives Europe's best food experts are joining forces to crack down on fraud. Euronews is following them in this special series: The Food Detectives Water Matters Europe's water is under increasing pressure. Pollution, droughts, floods are taking their toll on our drinking water, lakes, rivers and coastlines. Join us on a journey around Europe to see why protecting ecosystems matters, how our wastewater can be better managed, and to discover some of the best water solutions. Video reports, an animated explainer series and live debate – find out why Water Matters, from Euronews. Climate Now We give you the latest climate facts from the world’s leading source, analyse the trends and explain how our planet is changing. We meet the experts on the front line of climate change who explore new strategies to mitigate and adapt. Solar is helping to rescue Europe from the crippling costs of fossil fuel imports, as the war on Iran continues to keep oil and gas prices sky-high. Brent crude, which is used as the worldwide benchmark for oil prices, remains particularly volatile due to Iran’s stranglehold on the Strait of Hormuz, a vital passage which usually carries around one-fifth of global oil supplies. Yesterday (Thursday 4 June) Brent crude was trading at $95 (€81) per barrel – a €20 increase compared to the day before the war began (27 February). The benchmark Dutch TTF natural gas price has also surged since conflict began, spiking by almost 50 per cent during parts of March. However, new analysis by SolarPower Europe reveals that harnessing sunlight for energy has saved Europe €12.8 billion as of 2 June – averaging out at €136 million per day. “Citizens in Europe are turning to solar in this moment of crisis,” says Walburga Hemetsberger, CEO of SolarPower Europe. “Lessons from the past 100 days [of war] should sharpen the focus on delivering the non-fossil fuel flexibility, such as battery storage, that can amplify the benefits of Europe’s renewable power generation.” Hemetsberger argues this can help reduce Europeans’ energy bills and deliver a “more secure and competitive” Europe – but warns that concrete measures and financing tools from the bloc are needed to keep momentum. Several European nations have already demonstrated the benefits of revolutionising their energy systems by focusing on green technology prior to the war on Iran. Since 2019, Spain has doubled its wind and solar capacity, adding more than 40GW to its energy mix. To put that into perspective, a power plant with a capacity of 1 GW could power approximately 876,000 households for one year, if they consume the average of 10,000 kWh of electricity per year. “Spain’s wind and solar growth has reduced the influence of expensive fossil generators on the electricity price by 75 per cent since 2019,” energy think tank Ember said in a report published last year. “This decline in the hours where the electricity price was tied to gas power cost was faster than in other gas-reliant countries, such as Italy and Germany.” In European power markets, the most expensive generator operating to meet demand, which is typically fossil fuels, sets the hourly wholesale electricity price. However, as generation from lower-cost technologies like wind and solar grows, it displaces gas and coal, meaning fossil fuels determine the price less often. Record wind has also helped the UK break a new renewable record, despite “fantasy” claims that the country needs to drill the North Sea for oil. On 26 March, British wind energy generation hit a new high of 23,880 megawatts, enough power to cover 23 million homes. “Wind provided more than half of Britain’s electricity during this record period, and it’s highly significant that earlier in the day low-cost wind and solar squeezed expensive gas off our energy system – with gas falling to its lowest level of generation for nearly two years, providing just 2.3 per cent of our electricity,” says RenewableUK’s Tara Singh. “That’s what the energy transition looks like in practice, and it shows why we need to continue to build out an ambitious pipeline of new clean energy projects now and in the years ahead.” In 2025, wind and solar generated more EU electricity than fossil fuels for the first time ever, marking what experts described as a “major milestone” in the transition to clean power. A report from Ember found that wind and solar accounted for a record 30 per cent of EU electricity, overtaking fossil fuels by just one per cent. In 2024, Austria led the way as the country with the highest green electricity use rate (90 per cent) – spearheaded by its 16 hydroelectric power plants. Sweden came a close second at 88 per cent, powered mainly by wind and water, while Denmark was ranked third with 80 per cent of its energy coming from renewable sources. This was followed by Georgia (68.4 per cent), Portugal (65.8 per cent), Spain (69.7 per cent) and Croatia (58 per cent). Malta was ranked last, with just 10.7 per cent of renewable energy use.
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