Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.
Advertisement
Nature volume 649, pages 65–72 (2026)
7411
1
47
Metrics details
Perovskite/silicon tandem solar cells have emerged as promising candidates for next-generation photovoltaic technology owing to their ultrahigh power conversion efficiency (PCE)1,2,3. However, the mechanical stress generated during repeated environmental stress cycles remains a critical challenge for flexible perovskite/silicon tandem solar cells, leading to interfacial delamination and device degradation. Here we propose a dual-buffer-layer strategy with a stress-release mechanism to synergistically mitigate ion bombardment during subsequent sputtering deposition and enhance interfacial adhesion while preserving efficient charge extraction. The loose SnOx buffer layer, engineered by adjusting the purging time of atomic layer deposition (ALD), can dissipate strain energy, whereas the compact SnOx layer can ensure robust electrical contact. On the basis of this dual-buffer layer, the flexible tandem solar cell, constructed on a 60-micron-thick ultrathin silicon bottom cell, achieves a certified PCE of 33.4% on 1-cm2 area and a certified PCE of 29.8% on a wafer-sized area of 260-cm2 with a power-per-weight of up to 1.77 W g−1. The modified tandem solar cells demonstrate good durability, retaining more than 97% of their initial PCEs after 43,000 bending cycles under a maximum curvature radius of around 40 mm in air and around 97% after thermal cycling testing (−40 °C to 85 °C) for 250 cycles.
This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution
Access Nature and 54 other Nature Portfolio journals
Get Nature+, our best-value online-access subscription
$32.99 / 30 days
cancel any time
Subscribe to this journal
Receive 51 print issues and online access
$199.00 per year
only $3.90 per issue
Buy this article
USD 39.95
Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout
All data are available in the main text or supplementary materials. The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding authors on request. Source data are provided with this paper.
Liu, J. et al. Perovskite/silicon tandem solar cells with bilayer interface passivation. Nature 635, 596–603 (2024).
Article ADS PubMed CAS Google Scholar
Jia, L. et al. Efficient perovskite/silicon tandem with asymmetric self-assembly molecule. Nature 644, 912–919 (2025).
Article ADS PubMed CAS Google Scholar
Wu, W. et al. Stable and uniform self-assembled organic diradical molecules for perovskite photovoltaics. Science 389, 195–199 (2025).
Article ADS PubMed CAS Google Scholar
Liang, H. et al. Enhancing efficiency and stability of inverted flexible perovskite solar cells via multi-functionalized molecular design. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 64, e202501267 (2025).
Article CAS Google Scholar
Zhu, X. et al. Interfacial molecular anchor for ambient all-bladed perovskite solar modules. Joule 9, 101919 (2025).
Article CAS Google Scholar
Wu, Y. et al. In situ crosslinking-assisted perovskite grain growth for mechanically robust flexible perovskite solar cells with 23.4% efficiency. Joule 7, 398–415 (2023).
Article CAS Google Scholar
Ren, N. et al. 25%-efficiency flexible perovskite solar cells via controllable growth of SnO2. iEnergy 3, 39–45 (2024).
Article Google Scholar
Chu, Z. et al. Synergistic macroscopic–microscopic regulation: dual constraints of the island effect and coffee-ring effect in printing efficient flexible perovskite photovoltaics. Adv. Funct. Mater. 35, 2424191 (2025).
Article CAS Google Scholar
Chen, Y. et al. Nuclei engineering for even halide distribution in stable perovskite/silicon tandem solar cells. Science 385, 554–560 (2024).
Article ADS PubMed CAS Google Scholar
Ugur, E. et al. Enhanced cation interaction in perovskites for efficient tandem solar cells with silicon. Science 385, 533–538 (2024).
Article ADS PubMed CAS Google Scholar
Aydin, E. et al. Pathways toward commercial perovskite/silicon tandem photovoltaics. Science 383, eadh3849 (2024).
Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
Shi, Y., Berry, J. J. & Zhang, F. Perovskite/silicon tandem solar cells: insights and outlooks. ACS Energy Lett. 9, 1305–1330 (2024).
Article CAS Google Scholar
Liu, W. et al. Flexible solar cells based on foldable silicon wafers with blunted edges. Nature 617, 717–723 (2023).
Article ADS PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
Shishido, H. et al. High-efficiency perovskite/silicon tandem solar cells with flexibility. Sol. RRL 9, 2400899 (2025).
Article CAS Google Scholar
Chin, X. Y. et al. Interface passivation for 31.25%-efficient perovskite/silicon tandem solar cells. Science 381, 59–63 (2023).
Article ADS PubMed CAS Google Scholar
Ding, Y. et al. Cation reactivity inhibits perovskite degradation in efficient and stable solar modules. Science 386, 531–538 (2024).
Article ADS PubMed CAS Google Scholar
Liu, C. et al. Two-dimensional perovskitoids enhance stability in perovskite solar cells. Nature 633, 359–364 (2024).
Article ADS PubMed CAS Google Scholar
Shen, Y. et al. Strain regulation retards natural operation decay of perovskite solar cells. Nature 635, 882–889 (2024).
Article ADS PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
Wang, W.-T. et al. Water- and heat-activated dynamic passivation for perovskite photovoltaics. Nature 632, 294–300 (2024).
Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
Liu, S. et al. Triple-junction solar cells with cyanate in ultrawide-bandgap perovskites. Nature 628, 306–312 (2024).
Article ADS PubMed CAS Google Scholar
Li, Z. et al. Boosting mechanical durability under high humidity by bioinspired multisite polymer for high-efficiency flexible perovskite solar cells. Nat. Commun. 16, 1771 (2025).
Article ADS PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
Chen, H. et al. Improved charge extraction in inverted perovskite solar cells with dual-site-binding ligands. Science 384, 189–193 (2024).
Article ADS PubMed CAS Google Scholar
De Bastiani, M. et al. Mechanical reliability of fullerene/tin oxide interfaces in monolithic perovskite/silicon tandem cells. ACS Energy Lett. 7, 827–833 (2022).
Article Google Scholar
Gao, D. et al. Long-term stability in perovskite solar cells through atomic layer deposition of tin oxide. Science 386, 187–192 (2024).
Article ADS PubMed CAS Google Scholar
Chen, J. et al. Determining the bonding–degradation trade-off at heterointerfaces for increased efficiency and stability of perovskite solar cells. Nat. Energy 10, 181–190 (2025).
ADS CAS Google Scholar
Duan, T. et al. Chiral-structured heterointerfaces enable durable perovskite solar cells. Science 384, 878–884 (2024).
Article ADS PubMed CAS Google Scholar
You, S. et al. C60-based ionic salt electron shuttle for high-performance inverted perovskite solar modules. Science 388, 964–968 (2025).
Article ADS PubMed CAS Google Scholar
Palmstrom, A. F. et al. Enabling flexible all-perovskite tandem solar cells. Joule 3, 2193–2204 (2019).
Article CAS Google Scholar
Jain, H. & Poodt, P. About the importance of purge time in molecular layer deposition of alucone films. Dalton Trans. 50, 5807–5818 (2021).
Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
Perrotta, A., Poodt, P., van den Bruele, F. J., Kessels, W. M. M. & Creatore, M. Characterization of nano-porosity in molecular layer deposited films. Dalton Trans. 47, 7649–7655 (2018).
Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
Wong, T.-S., Sun, T., Feng, L. & Aizenberg, J. Interfacial materials with special wettability. MRS Bull. 38, 366–371 (2013).
Article CAS Google Scholar
Bristow, H. et al. Mitigating delamination in perovskite/silicon tandem solar modules. Sol. RRL 8, 2400289 (2024).
Article CAS Google Scholar
Kirchartz, T., Márquez, J. A., Stolterfoht, M. & Unold, T. Photoluminescence-based characterization of halide perovskites for photovoltaics. Adv. Energy Mater. 10, 1904134 (2020).
Article CAS Google Scholar
Li, Q. et al. Graphene-polymer reinforcement of perovskite lattices for durable solar cells. Science 387, 1069–1077 (2025).
Article ADS PubMed CAS Google Scholar
Massiot, I., Cattoni, A. & Collin, S. Progress and prospects for ultrathin solar cells. Nat. Energy 5, 959–972 (2020).
Article ADS Google Scholar
Polman, A., Knight, M., Garnett, E. C., Ehrler, B. & Sinke, W. C. Photovoltaic materials: present efficiencies and future challenges. Science 352, aad4424 (2016).
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Niewelt, T. et al. Reassessment of the intrinsic bulk recombination in crystalline silicon. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 235, 111467 (2022).
Article CAS Google Scholar
Richter, A., Hermle, M. & Glunz, S. W. Reassessment of the limiting efficiency for crystalline silicon solar cells. IEEE J. Photovolt. 3, 1184–1191 (2013).
Article Google Scholar
Download references
This work was supported by the National Key Research and Development Program of China (2024YFB3817305), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (no. 62474122, U24A2063), the Key Basic Research Program of Jiangsu Province (no. BK20243031), the Gusu Innovation and Entrepreneurship Leading Talent Program (ZXL2024389), the Special Project for the Integration of ‘Two Chains’ in Shaanxi Province (2023-LL-QY-16), Key Research and Development Program of Shaanxi Province (2025GH-YBXM-011), the Suzhou Key Core Technologies Project (SYG2024146) and Innovative and Entrepreneurial Talent Projects of Qin Chuang Yuan in Shaanxi Province (QCYRCXM-2023-197, QCYRCXM-2023-002).
These authors contributed equally: Zheng Fang, Lei Ding, Ying Yang, Xiaobing Gu, Haiyue Li
College of Energy, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Advanced Negative Carbon Technologies, Soochow University, Suzhou, China
Zheng Fang, Yue Yin, Zhijie Rao, Linyu Ning, Dongsheng Yang, Huimin Zhang & Jiang Liu
LONGi Central R&D Institute, LONGi Green Energy Technology Co., Ltd., Xi’an, China
Lei Ding, Ying Yang, Xiaobing Gu, Haiyue Li, Hao Chen, Xiaoyong Wu, Yongdeng Long, Wei Li, Fu Zhang, Simeng Xia, Lingbo Jia, Chi Liu, Bochao Li, Bo Liu, Shijie Ju, Wei Du, Hua Zhang, Yuan Qin, Xiaoning Ru, Yongyuan Xu, Yongcai He, Zhenguo Li, Xixiang Xu, Minghao Qu, Bo He & Jiang Liu
Institute of Functional Nano & Soft Materials (FUNSOM), Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Advanced Negative Carbon Technologies, Soochow University, Suzhou, China
Lei Ding & Xiaohong Zhang
State Key Laboratory of Materials Low-Carbon Recycling, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing, China
Wei Wang & Yue Lu
School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China
Bo He
PubMed Google Scholar
PubMed Google Scholar
PubMed Google Scholar
PubMed Google Scholar
PubMed Google Scholar
PubMed Google Scholar
PubMed Google Scholar
PubMed Google Scholar
PubMed Google Scholar
PubMed Google Scholar
PubMed Google Scholar
PubMed Google Scholar
PubMed Google Scholar
PubMed Google Scholar
PubMed Google Scholar
PubMed Google Scholar
PubMed Google Scholar
PubMed Google Scholar
PubMed Google Scholar
PubMed Google Scholar
PubMed Google Scholar
PubMed Google Scholar
PubMed Google Scholar
PubMed Google Scholar
PubMed Google Scholar
PubMed Google Scholar
PubMed Google Scholar
PubMed Google Scholar
PubMed Google Scholar
PubMed Google Scholar
PubMed Google Scholar
PubMed Google Scholar
PubMed Google Scholar
PubMed Google Scholar
PubMed Google Scholar
Conceptualization: Z.F., L.D., Y. Yang, H.L. and J.L. Fabricated and optimized the perovskite/silicon tandem solar cells: Z.F., L.D., Y. Yang, S.X., L.J., Hua Zhang., C.L., Y.Q., Y.H., X.G., B. Li, B. Liu, S.J., W.L. and W.D. Fabricated and optimized the silicon bottom cells: H.C., H.L., X.W., F.Z., Y. Long, X.R. and M.Q. Conducted the XPS/UPS and AFM measurements: Z.F., Z.R., L.N., Huimin Zhang, Y. Yin, D.Y. and S.X. Conducted the stability and bending measurements: Z.F., L.D., H.C., H.L. and Y.X. Conducted the TEM measurements: W.W. and Y. Lu. Funding acquisition: Z.L., X.X., M.Q., B.H., J.L. and X.Z. Writing – original draft: J.L., Z.F., L.D., M.Q. and X.Z. Writing – review and editing: J.L., Z.F., L.D., M.Q. and X.X.
Correspondence to Zhenguo Li, Xixiang Xu, Minghao Qu, Bo He, Jiang Liu or Xiaohong Zhang.
L.D., Y. Yang, X.G., H.L., H.C., X.W., Y. Long, W.L., F.Z., S.X., L.J., C.L., B. Li, B. Liu, S.J., W.D., Hua Zhang, Y.Q., X.R., Y.X., Y.H., Z.L., X.X., M.Q. and B.H. are employees of LONGi company. All of the other authors declare no competing interests.
Nature thanks Jinwei Gao, who co-reviewed with Zhengchi Yang, and the other, anonymous, reviewer(s) for their contribution to the peer review of this work. Peer reviewer reports are available.
Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
a–e, Process pressure as a function of time using different purging times. f, Thickness of the deposited SnOx layers as a function of ALD cycles. The fitted average rates for 10 s and 2 s are 1.5 Å per cycle and 2.3 Å per cycle, respectively.
a, PVSK/C60/compact SnOx/TCO sample. b, PVSK/C60/loose SnOx/TCO sample. c, PVSK/C60/compact SnOx/loose SnOx/TCO sample. d, PVSK/C60/loose SnOx/compact SnOx/TCO sample. For each sample, the work of adhesion as a function of displacement at two different locations is given, with the corresponding optical photographs shown underneath.
a, XRD patterns of the samples with regulated SnOx buffer layers under different purging times. b, XRD patterns of the samples after water immersion test for 20 min. c, Tested sample structure. d, Photos of the sample surface after H2O immersion test based on different SnOx layers, fabricated with different purging times ranging from 1 s to 10 s.
a, Three types of bilayer structure for performance comparison. b, Box plots of PCE, Voc, FF and Jsc for perovskite/silicon tandem solar cells with different SnOx layers.
a–d, The calculations were performed using a self-written MATLAB program. The intrinsic radiative and Auger recombination parameterizations are obtained following the literature37,38. The optical absorption is determined by the ideal Lambertian light-trapping model. Defect-related (Shockley–Read–Hall, SRH) lifetime τn = τp = 40 ms is assumed. The ideal interface and the interface recombination with Jo = 5 fA cm−2 are both considered for comparison.
a, Comparison of AM 1.5G spectrum filtered by perovskite top cell and standard AM 1.5G spectra. b–e, Calculated photovoltaic parameters.
a, Photovoltaic parameter statistics, measured under 1-sun illumination. b,c, EQE and reflectance curves of the single-junction silicon solar cells.
In-house I–V curves of the best-performing perovskite/silicon tandem using 60-μm M6-sized silicon wafer.
a,b, I–V curves and extracted PV parameters and series resistance (RS) for the small-area (about 1 cm2, a) and large-area (about 261 cm2, b) single-junction perovskite devices on textured conductive silicon substrates.
A motor is used for automatic bending testing, with each cycle taking 5 s. The test lasted for more than 60 h and was executed over 43,000 cycles.
This Supplementary Information file contains Supplementary Text, Supplementary Figs. 1–21, Supplementary Tables 1–3 and Supplementary References.
Optical video of the cyclic bending fatigue testing of flexible perovskite/silicon tandem solar cell.
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
Reprints and permissions
Fang, Z., Ding, L., Yang, Y. et al. Flexible perovskite/silicon tandem solar cell with a dual-buffer layer. Nature 649, 65–72 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-09835-w
Download citation
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Version of record:
Issue date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-09835-w
Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:
Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.
Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative
Advertisement
Nature (Nature)
ISSN 1476-4687 (online)
ISSN 0028-0836 (print)
© 2025 Springer Nature Limited
Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter — what matters in science, free to your inbox daily.
