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The use of two-dimensional perovskite interlayers enables high efficiency in perovskite solar cells and modules but presents challenges for their long-term operational stability. Here we use a co-crystal engineering approach to improve the long-term stability of these devices. We use a neutral molecule, benzoguanamine, as a linker in low-dimensional perovskites, replacing conventional ionic molecules, and form a co-crystal. By applying this co-crystal layer onto the perovskite layer, we achieve power conversion efficiency of 23.4% in small-area solar cells, and 23.1% and 18.5% on solar modules with active areas of 9.0 cm² and 48 cm², respectively. The solar modules retain more than 95% and 98% of their initial efficiency after >5,000 h of 1-sun light soaking and >1,000 h of ultraviolet-ray exposure, respectively, at maximum power point conditions. They also retain more than 91% of their initial efficiency after >5,000 h of continuous thermal stress at 85 °C.
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The data that support the findings of this study are available in the Article and its Supplementary Information. Source data are provided with this paper. These data are available via Zenodo at https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17334221 (ref. ⁷⁴).
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N.Y.N. gratefully acknowledges the Ministry of University and Research (MUR) for PON/FSE-REACT EU. M.Z. and A.D.C. gratefully acknowledge the funding from the Ministry of University and Research (MUR) with PRIN project CONPER (2022CBBEHN). J.X. and C.L. acknowledge the funding from the United States Department of Energy (US DOE), Office of Fossil Energy and Carbon Management (FECM) (contract number TCF-20-24815) under the Horizon 2020 (ERA-NET ACT 2021, NEXTCCUS project). N.Y.N. acknowledges P. Schouwink (platform leader at EPFL SB ISIC-XRDSAP) for his support for extraction of the GIWAXS results. The computational effort in this work was done utilizing computational resources provided by the Laboratory Computing Research Center (LCRC) at the Argonne National Laboratory.
These authors contributed equally: Narges Yaghoobi Nia, Mahmoud Zendehdel.
Iritaly Trading Company S.r.l., Rome, Italy
Narges Yaghoobi Nia
Laboratory of Photonics and Interfaces, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
Narges Yaghoobi Nia & Michael Grätzel
Department of Electronics Engineering, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy
Narges Yaghoobi Nia
CHOSE, Centre for Hybrid and Organic Solar Energy, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy
Mahmoud Zendehdel & Aldo Di Carlo
CNR – Istituto di Struttura della Materia (CNR-ISM), Rome, Italy
Barbara Paci, Marco Di Giovannantonio, Amanda Generosi, Giorgio Contini & Marco Guaragno
Chemical Sciences and Engineering Division, Argonne National Lab, Lemont, IL, USA
Jiayi Xu & Cong Liu
Greatcell Italy, Greatcell Solar Italia, Rome, Italy
Enrico Leonardi
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M.Z. and N.Y.N. conceived the idea, methodology and conceptualization and M.Z. and N.Y.N. conducted devices and modules fabrication and optimization processes. N.Y.N. performed the encapsulation of modules for thermal stability and UV exposure tests. N.Y.N. conducted the laser patterning procedures. M.Z. and N.Y.N. fabricated all the samples for PL, XRD, GIWAXS, XPS, SEM, UV–vis absorbance spectroscopy and diffuse reflectance spectroscopy measurements. M.Z. performed the SEM measurements. M.Z. performed the EIS and dark J–V measurements and relevant discussion. M.Z. and N.Y.N. performed the PL, UV–vis absorbance spectroscopy and diffuse reflectance spectroscopy measurements and TRPL, TPV and TPC measurements from the cells and fitting the relevant results. M.Z. performed the IV measurements for all devices and modules. M.Z. and N.Y.N. also conducted the XRD analyses of the 3D + 2D and 3D/2D thin films formed on the glass substrates. M.Z. and N.Y.N. performed the stability assessments of the modules under light, UV-ray and thermal stresses. B.P., A.G. and M. Guaragno conducted the X-ray analysis and stability test via X-ray analysis and relevant discussion. E.L. encapsulated the medium-size modules for the light soaking tests. M.D.G. and G.C. performed the XPS analysis and relevant discussion. J.X. and C.L. performed the DFT computations and relevant discussion. M.Z. and N.Y.N. supervised the work. A.D.C. suggested the research topic. M.Z. and N.Y.N. prepared the original draft. M. Grätzel and all the authors contributed to the review and editing of the paper. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the paper.
Correspondence to Narges Yaghoobi Nia, Mahmoud Zendehdel or Aldo Di Carlo.
N.Y.N. is president and co-founder of IRITALY Trading Company S.r.l., a company that part of its activity is commercializing perovskite photovoltaics. E.L. is a senior researcher employer of Halocell Europe Srl (formerly known as Greatcell Solar Italia Srl), a company commercializing solar-grade materials. The other authors declare no competing interests.
Nature Energy thanks Fei Zhang and the other, anonymous, reviewer(s) for their contribution to the peer review of this work.
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Supplementary Figs. 1–27, Table 1, Notes 1–3 and references.
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Yaghoobi Nia, N., Zendehdel, M., Paci, B. et al. Co-crystal engineering of a two-dimensional perovskite phase for perovskite solar modules with improved efficiency and stability. Nat Energy (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41560-025-01903-9
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Received: 26 November 2023
Accepted: 17 October 2025
Published: 31 December 2025
Version of record: 31 December 2025
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41560-025-01903-9
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