Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.
Advertisement
Nature Energy (2026)
The growing demand for photovoltaic (PV) technologies that are lightweight and flexible and can be integrated seamlessly into diverse applications has propelled interest in thin-film solar cells. Among these, Cu(In,Ga)(S,Se)2 (CIGS) and metal halide perovskites have garnered significant attention in the past and present, respectively. Although CIGS reached commercial readiness after decades of refinement, its large-scale deployment was hindered by manufacturing complexity, scale-up challenges and a lack of coordination between materials, device design and production systems. Despite setting record efficiencies at an unprecedented pace perovskite solar cells now face similar challenges on their path to commercialization: ensuring long-term stability; translating laboratory performance to scalable architectures; and aligning with industrial realities. Here we revisit the CIGS experience not as a benchmark, but as a blueprint, highlighting how its successes and failures can inform a more deliberate and durable trajectory for perovskite PV. By bridging this historical perspective with the current frontier, we propose that the future of perovskites depends not only on continued innovation, but also on learning from past thin-film PV experiences to avoid repeating their pitfalls.
This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution
Access Nature and 54 other Nature Portfolio journals
Get Nature+, our best-value online-access subscription
$32.99 / 30 days
cancel any time
Subscribe to this journal
Receive 12 digital issues and online access to articles
$119.00 per year
only $9.92 per issue
Buy this article
USD 39.95
Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout
Powell, R. C. Research Leading to High Throughput Manufacturing of Thin-Film CdTe PV Modules: Annual Subcontract Report, September 2004–September 2005 (National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 2006); https://www.osti.gov/biblio/881482
Ochoa, M., Buecheler, S., Tiwari, A. N. & Carron, R. Challenges and opportunities for an efficiency boost of next generation Cu(In,Ga)Se2 solar cells: prospects for a paradigm shift. Energy Environ. Sci. 13, 2047–2055 (2020).
Article Google Scholar
Stanbery, B. J., Abou-Ras, D., Yamada, A. & Mansfield, L. CIGS photovoltaics: reviewing an evolving paradigm. J. Phys. Appl. Phys. 55, 173001 (2021).
Article Google Scholar
Powalla, M. & Dimmler, B. Scaling up issues of CIGS solar cells. Thin Solid Films 361–362, 540–546 (2000).
Article Google Scholar
Green, M. A. et al. Solar cell efficiency tables (version 63). Prog. Photovolt. Res. Appl. 32, 3–13 (2024).
Article Google Scholar
Bati, A. S. R. et al. Next-generation applications for integrated perovskite solar cells. Commun. Mater. 4, 2 (2023).
Article Google Scholar
Best research-cell efficiency chart. NREL. https://www.nrel.gov/pv/cell-efficiency (2025).
Jaffe, J. E. & Zunger, A. Electronic structure of the ternary chalcopyrite semiconductors CuAlSe2, CuGaSe2, CuInSe2, and CuInS2. Phys. Rev. B 29, 1882–1906 (1984).
Article Google Scholar
Buin, A. et al. Materials processing routes to trap-free halide perovskites. Nano Lett. 14, 6281–6286 (2014).
Article Google Scholar
Mosquera-Lois, I. et al. Multifaceted nature of defect tolerance in halide perovskites and emerging semiconductors. Nat. Rev. Chem. 9, 287–304 (2025).
Article Google Scholar
Spindler, C. et al. Electronic defects in Cu(In,Ga)Se2: towards a comprehensive model. Phys. Rev. Mater. 3, 090302 (2019).
Article Google Scholar
Theelen, M. & Daume, F. Stability of Cu(In,Ga)Se2 solar cells: a literature review. Sol. Energy 133, 586–627 (2016).
Article Google Scholar
Eisenbarth, T. et al. Characterization of metastabilities in Cu(In,Ga)Se2 thin-film solar cells by capacitance and current–voltage spectroscopy. J. Appl. Phys. 110, 094506 (2011).
Article Google Scholar
Zhang, D., Li, D., Hu, Y., Mei, A. & Han, H. Degradation pathways in perovskite solar cells and how to meet international standards. Commun. Mater. 3, 58 (2022).
Article Google Scholar
Singh, S. & Moons, E. Impact of photoinduced phase segregation in mixed-halide perovskite absorbers on their material and device stability. APL Energy 2, 016112 (2024).
Article Google Scholar
Abou-Ras, D. et al. Direct insight into grain boundary reconstruction in polycrystalline Cu(In,Ga)Se2 with atomic resolution. Phys. Rev. Lett. 108, 075502 (2012).
Article Google Scholar
Chu, Z. et al. Impact of grain boundaries on efficiency and stability of organic–inorganic trihalide perovskites. Nat. Commun. 8, 2230 (2017).
Article Google Scholar
Kaiser, W. et al. Defect formation and healing at grain boundaries in lead-halide perovskites. J. Mater. Chem. A 10, 24854–24865 (2022).
Article Google Scholar
Correa-Baena, J.-P. et al. Promises and challenges of perovskite solar cells. Science 358, 739–744 (2017).
Article Google Scholar
Olasoji, A. J. et al. Metal halide perovskites: a platform for next-generation multifunctional devices. Adv. Ind. Eng. Chem. 1, 12 (2025).
Article Google Scholar
Kim, M. & Kim, J. Recent research trends in inorganic charge transport materials for next-generation perovskite solar cells. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 219, 115835 (2025).
Article Google Scholar
Borghardt, S. et al. Engineering of optical and electronic band gaps in transition metal dichalcogenide monolayers through external dielectric screening. Phys. Rev. Mater. 1, 054001 (2017).
Article Google Scholar
Werner, F. et al. Ultra-thin passivation layers in Cu(In,Ga)Se2 thin-film solar cells: full-area passivated front contacts and their impact on bulk doping. Sci. Rep. 10, 7530 (2020).
Article Google Scholar
Boukortt, N. E. I., Loureiro, A. G. & Abushattal, A. Efficiency improvement of ultrathin CIGS solar cells. Sol. Energy 282, 112935 (2024).
Article Google Scholar
Guillemoles, J.-F. et al. Stability issues of Cu(In,Ga)Se2-based solar cells. J. Phys. Chem. B 104, 4849–4862 (2000).
Article Google Scholar
Kettle, J. et al. Review of technology specific degradation in crystalline silicon, cadmium telluride, copper indium gallium selenide, dye sensitised, organic and perovskite solar cells in photovoltaic modules: understanding how reliability improvements in mature technologies can enhance emerging technologies. Prog. Photovolt. Res. Appl. 30, 1365–1392 (2022).
Article Google Scholar
Helal Miah, M. et al. Key degradation mechanisms of perovskite solar cells and strategies for enhanced stability: issues and prospects. RSC Adv. 15, 628–654 (2025).
Article Google Scholar
Remec, M. et al. Seasonality in perovskite solar cells: insights from 4 years of outdoor data. Adv. Energy Mater. 15, 2501906 (2025).
Article Google Scholar
Aghaei, M. et al. Review of degradation and failure phenomena in photovoltaic modules. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 159, 112160 (2022).
Article Google Scholar
Baumann, S. et al. Stability and reliability of perovskite containing solar cells and modules: degradation mechanisms and mitigation strategies. Energy Environ. Sci. 17, 7566–7599 (2024).
Article Google Scholar
Yang, W., Zhang, Y., Xiao, C., Yang, J. & Shi, T. A review of encapsulation methods and geometric improvements of perovskite solar cells and modules for mass production and commercialization. Nano Mater. Sci. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoms.2025.02.005 (2025).
Article Google Scholar
Bermudez, V. & Perez-Rodriguez, A. Understanding the cell-to-module efficiency gap in Cu(In,Ga)(S,Se)2 photovoltaic scale-up. Nat. Energy 3, 466–475 (2018).
Article Google Scholar
Regmi, G. et al. Perspectives of chalcopyrite-based CIGSe thin-film solar cell: a review. J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Electron. 31, 7286–7314 (2020).
Article Google Scholar
Zhao, C. et al. Advances in CIGS thin film solar cells with emphasis on the alkali element post-deposition treatment. Mater. Rep. Energy 3, 100214 (2023).
Google Scholar
Kang, B. & Yan, F. Emerging strategies for the large-scale fabrication of perovskite solar modules: from design to process. Energy Environ. Sci. 18, 3917–3954 (2025).
Article Google Scholar
Pathak, C. S. et al. Recent progress in coating methods for large-area perovskite solar module fabrication. Sol. RRL 8, 2300860 (2024).
Article Google Scholar
Gaddy, D. B., Sivaram, D. V. & O’Sullivan, D. F. Venture Capital and Cleantech: the Wrong Model for Clean Energy Innovation (MIT Energy Initiative, 2016).
Bomgardner, M. M. Thin-film solar firms revamp to stay in the game. Chemical & Engineering News (20 May 2013).
Archer, M. Beyond Technical Readiness Levels: How Do We Assess Readiness for Scale Impact? (Alliance for Logistics Innovation through Collaboration in Europe, 2022).
Snaith, H. J. & Hacke, P. Enabling reliability assessments of pre-commercial perovskite photovoltaics with lessons learned from industrial standards. Nat. Energy 3, 459–465 (2018).
Article Google Scholar
Repins, I. & Johnston, S. R&D to Ensure a Scientific Basis for Qualification Tests and Standards Final Report: FY19-FY22 (National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 2021); https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/1846933/
Cordel, J. J., Woodhouse, M. & Warren, E. L. Technoeconomic analysis of perovskite/silicon tandem solar modules. Joule 9, 101781 (2025).
Article Google Scholar
Feurer, T. et al. Progress in thin film CIGS photovoltaics—research and development, manufacturing, and applications. Prog. Photovolt. Res. Appl. 25, 645–667 (2017).
Article Google Scholar
Bansal, S., Friedlmeier, T. M., Nardone, M., Kweon, K. E. & Lordi, V. Metastability and Long-Term Degradation in CIGS Devices: Effect of Alkali Treatments, Back Contact and Emitter Layers (US Department of Energy, 2020); https://www.osti.gov/biblio/1773027
Gloeckler, M. & Sites, J. R. Grain-boundary recombination in solar cells. J. Appl. Phys. 98, 113704 (2005).
Article Google Scholar
Lanzoni, E. M. et al. The impact of Kelvin probe force microscopy operation modes and environment on grain boundary band bending in perovskite and Cu(In,Ga)Se2 solar cells. Nano Energy 88, 106270 (2021).
Article Google Scholar
Yun, J. S. et al. Critical role of grain boundaries for ion migration in formamidinium and methylammonium lead halide perovskite solar cells. Adv. Energy Mater. 6, 1600330 (2016).
Article Google Scholar
Adhyaksa, G. W. P. et al. Understanding detrimental and beneficial grain boundary effects in halide perovskites. Adv. Mater. 30, 1804792 (2018).
Article Google Scholar
Harvey, S. P. et al. Investigating PID shunting in polycrystalline CIGS devices via multi-scale, multi-technique characterization. IEEE J. Photovolt. 9, 559–564 (2019).
Article Google Scholar
Shimada, T. et al. Boeing’s Vacuum-Evaporated CuInSe2 Thin-Film Heterojunction Solar Cell (National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1984).
Tarrant, D. E. & Gay, R. R. Process R&D for CIS-Based Thin-Film PV. NREL Technical Report (National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 2006).
Wennerberg, J. et al. The first commercial CIGS module released by Siemens Solar Industries. in Proc. 17th European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference (2002).
Nowak, S. Trends in Photovoltaic Applications: Survey Report 1999 IEA-PVPS Report T1-08:1999 (1999).
DOE Solar Energy Technologies Program FY 2006 Annual Report (National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 2006).
Clarion Energy Content Directors. Nanosolar secures $100 million in funding. Power Engineering (21 June 2006).
HelioVolt. Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HelioVolt (2025).
Nanosolar. Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanosolar (2025).
Solyndra. Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solyndra (2025).
Solar frontier. Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_Frontier (2025).
Tour Solar Frontier’s GW CIGS thin film solar cell plant. Renewable Energy World (29 April 2011); https://www.renewableenergyworld.com/solar/tour-solar-frontier/
New world record for CIGS solar cells. ScienceDaily https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2024/02/240226114616.htm (2024).
Why invest in CIGS thin-film technology: manufacturing. CIGS-PV.net https://cigs-pv.net/why-invest-in-cigs-thin-film-technology/03-manufacturing/ (2025).
Jena, A. K., Kulkarni, A. & Miyasaka, T. Organometal halide perovskites as visible-light sensitizers for photovoltaic cells. Chem. Rev. 2, 33 (2016).
Google Scholar
Perovskite solar cell. Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perovskite_solar_cell (2025).
Lee, M. M., Teuscher, J., Miyasaka, T., Murakami, T. N. & Snaith, H. J. Efficient hybrid solar cells based on meso-superstructured organometal halide perovskites. Science 338, 643–647 (2012).
Article Google Scholar
Braly, I. L. et al. Hybrid perovskite films approaching the radiative limit with over 90% photoluminescence quantum efficiency. Nat. Photon. 12, 355–361 (2018).
Article Google Scholar
Osborne, M. Oxford PV secures £8 million for perovskite solar commercialisation. PV Tech (5 March 2015).
Gifford, J. Polish perovskites attracts Japanese investor. PV Magazine International (11 September 2015).
Perovskite firm Oxford PV raises £65m in Series D funding round. Power Technology (5 July 2019). https://www.power-technology.com/news/perovskite-oxford-pv-funding/
Casey, T. Oxford PV raises $19 million for perovskite solar cell R&D. CleanTechnica https://cleantechnica.com/2015/10/07/oxford-pv-raises-19-million-for-perovskite-solar-cell-rd/ (2015).
Faheem, M. B. et al. All-inorganic perovskite solar cells: energetics, key challenges, and strategies toward commercialization. ACS Energy Lett. 5, 290–320 (2020).
Article Google Scholar
Zhao, M. et al. Four-terminal all-perovskite tandem solar cells achieving power conversion efficiencies exceeding 23%. ACS Energy Lett. 3, 305–306 (2018).
Article Google Scholar
Japan’s NEDO launches R&D call for tandem perovskite solar cell mass production. Perovskite-Info https://www.perovskite-info.com/japans-nedo-launches-rd-call-tandem-perovskite-solar-cell-mass-production (2021).
Tandem PV secures $6M of financing. Tandem PV https://www.tandempv.com/news/tandem-pv-secures-%246m-of-financing (2023).
Chinese PV industry brief: UtmoLight starts perosvkite module production, pv magazine https://www.pv-magazine.com/2025/02/07/chinese-pv-industry-brief-utmolight-begins-perosvkite-solar-module-production-at-gw-scale-facility/ (2025).
Zhao, J. China Advances to GW-Scale Mass Production of Perovskite Solar Cells: Aims to Exceed 30% Conversion Efficiency with Tandem Cells (2024).
China’s GCL to invest USD$98 million in tandem silicon/perovskite PV. Perovskite-Info https://www.perovskite-info.com/chinas-gcl-invest-usd98-million-tandem-siliconperovskite-pv (2024).
Perovskite Solar Cell Market Share & Trends Analysis Report, By Structure (Planar Perovskite Solar Cells and Mesoporous Perovskite Solar Cells), By Product Type (Rigid and Flexible), By End User, By Region, and Segment Forecasts, 2024-2031 (InsightAce Analytic, 2024).
Download references
Nanomaterials Spectroscopy and Imaging Group, Transport at Nanoscale Interfaces Laboratory, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Dübendorf, Switzerland
Mirjana Dimitrievska
Micro and Nanotechnologies Group, Thin Film Photovoltaics Laboratory, Escola d’Enginyeria de Barcelona Est, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain
Edgardo Saucedo
Center for Research in Multiscale Science and Engineering, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain
Edgardo Saucedo
Center for Renewable Energy and Storage Technologies, Physical Sciences and Engineering Division, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, Thuwal, Saudi Arabia
Stefaan De Wolf
Clean Energy Institute, Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Washington, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
Billy J. Stanbery
Department of Biological and Chemical Engineering, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO, USA
Billy J. Stanbery
Berbetin, Antibes, France
Veronica Bermudez Benito
PubMed Google Scholar
PubMed Google Scholar
PubMed Google Scholar
PubMed Google Scholar
PubMed Google Scholar
Correspondence to Mirjana Dimitrievska or Veronica Bermudez Benito.
The authors declare no competing interests.
Nature Energy thanks Susanne Siebentritt and the other, anonymous, reviewers for their contribution to the peer review of this work.
Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
Reprints and permissions
Dimitrievska, M., Saucedo, E., De Wolf, S. et al. Lessons from copper indium gallium sulfo-selenide solar cells for progressing perovskite photovoltaics. Nat Energy (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41560-025-01936-0
Download citation
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Version of record:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41560-025-01936-0
Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:
Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.
Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative
Advertisement
Nature Energy (Nat Energy)
ISSN 2058-7546 (online)
© 2026 Springer Nature Limited
Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter — what matters in science, free to your inbox daily.
