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npj Space Exploration volume 2, Article number: 12 (2026)
The Moon exhibits extreme environmental characteristics such as prolonged day-night cycle, large temperature fluctuations, high vacuum, and intense radiation, significantly limiting the applicability of traditional building thermal engineering and energy design methods in this environment. These environmental characteristics pose severe challenges to the thermal performance of lunar base buildings and the stability and safety of their energy systems. Therefore, this paper explores the key technical challenges and primary solutions in the construction of energy systems for long-term lunar habitats. It proposes that by advancing research on precise prediction technologies for building and equipment loads in lunar bases, key technologies for efficient energy storage and photovoltaic power generation, as well as the construction and optimization of multi-energy synergistic energy systems for lunar bases, the autonomy and reliability of lunar energy systems can be enhanced, thereby ensuring the sustained operation of future lunar bases.
With the increasing demands of human space exploration and resource utilization, the establishment of long-term lunar bases has become a key objective in international space strategy and technological development. Since 2020, the launch of NASA’s Artemis Program1 and China’s International Lunar Research Station (ILRS)2 has marked the transition of human lunar activities from short-term exploration to long-term habitation. Energy supply is the fundamental prerequisite for the long-term, stable operation of lunar bases. Sufficient and stable energy assurance is critical to the successful construction and sustainable operation of lunar bases, directly affecting the safety of astronauts and the success or failure of space missions. To ensure the safe survival of personnel in the extreme lunar environment and the reliable operation of various equipment, lunar bases must develop life support systems and energy supply systems with high reliability and stability.
However, the lunar environment is characterized by a series of extreme conditions, including a prolonged day-night cycle, large temperature fluctuations, high vacuum, and intense radiation. The Moon has a rotational period of ~27.3 Earth days, with lunar day and night each lasting about 14 Earth days3, resulting in an extreme temporal rhythm of “hot and illuminated days” and “cold and dark nights.” In addition, variations in the lunar surface temperature are jointly influenced by solar radiation and internal lunar heat. Owing to the Moon’s extremely low thermal inertia, the daytime surface temperature is dominated by absorbed incident solar radiation. The absence of an atmosphere capable of retaining heat leads to an exceptionally large diurnal temperature variation: surface temperatures reach ~400 K during the lunar day, while in permanently shadowed regions and during the lunar night, temperatures drop to about 90 K4, Fig. 1 illustrates the zonal mean bolometric temperatures of the lunar.
Zonal mean bolometric temperatures22.
Meanwhile, due to the lack of both an atmosphere and a global magnetic field, the lunar surface is directly exposed to solar radiation and cosmic rays. This high-energy particle radiation environment not only threatens the health of astronauts but also leads to the performance degradation of solar panels, functional failures of electronic devices, and material aging within the energy system. Furthermore, the absence of an atmosphere also results in the global average solar irradiance on the Moon being significantly higher than that on Earth. At lunar noon, a surface oriented normal to the Sun can receive nearly the full solar irradiance of about 1361 W/m², whereas even under optimal conditions on Earth, the peak surface irradiance is only around 1000 W/m2. Figure 2 presents the solar illumination conditions at different latitudes in the northern lunar hemisphere, showing that solar irradiance during the lunar daytime gradually decreases with increasing latitude.
Solar illumination conditions at different latitudes in the northern lunar hemisphere23.
The strong coupling of extreme lunar environmental factors including prolonged day-night cycle, large temperature fluctuations, high vacuum, and intense radiation poses severe challenges to the thermal performance of lunar buildings and to the stability and safety of their energy systems. Under such conditions, conventional building thermal theories and energy system design methods developed for terrestrial environments become fundamentally inapplicable. This coupled effect not only imposes far more stringent technical requirements on the performance and reliability of key energy-system components operating in extreme environments, but also compels lunar energy systems to achieve precise energy supply-demand matching and transient balance over an ultra-wide dynamic operating range. Consequently, the core objective of research on lunar base energy systems lies in developing accurate thermal modeling and high-efficiency energy system design strategies for lunar base buildings under multiple extreme physical constraints so as to enable dynamic coordination across energy generation, storage, and conversion processes, and ultimately ensure long-term energy self-sufficiency of the lunar base.
This paper focuses on the major technical challenges currently confronting the development of lunar energy systems. These challenges include accurate load prediction technologies for buildings and equipment operating under high vacuum and large temperature fluctuations for lunar environments; high-energy-density energy storage technologies capable of supporting the prolonged day-night cycle; efficient energy storage and power generation technologies operable across extremely wide temperature ranges; as well as multi-energy coupled and integrated energy supply systems with intelligent control capabilities. Based on an in-depth analysis of these key issues, this paper further provides relevant research insights, aiming to offer a logically structured, systematically comprehensive, and technically well-defined reference framework for the construction of stable, sustainable, and closed-loop energy systems for future lunar bases.
Under high vacuum conditions, the calculation of heating and cooling loads for lunar base buildings faces theoretical and engineering challenges that are fundamentally different from those encountered in earth buildings. Due to the near absence of an atmosphere on the Moon, convective heat transfer which dominates traditional building thermal analysis on Earth becomes largely inoperative in the lunar environment. As a result, heat exchange between buildings and the external environment relies primarily on thermal radiation and heat conduction, rendering conventional building load calculation methods and empirical models difficult to apply directly.
Meanwhile, the prolonged lunar day-night cycle, coupled with intense solar irradiation during the daytime and the extremely low deep-space thermal background at night, subjects building envelopes to extreme and highly non-stationary thermal boundary conditions. Consequently, heating and cooling loads exhibit pronounced temporal fluctuations across multiple time scales, placing stringent demands on dynamic thermal load modeling and energy balance analysis. Under high vacuum conditions, the external surfaces of buildings must simultaneously account for direct solar radiation, reflected radiation from the lunar surface, and radiative heat dissipation to space environment5 (as illustrated in Fig. 3), making the accurate characterization of radiative boundary conditions one of the core challenges in load calculation.
Radiation exchange at the lunar surface5.
Therefore, heating and cooling load prediction for lunar base buildings in high vacuum and large temperature fluctuations environments constitutes a multiphysics coupling problem that integrates unsteady radiative heat transfer with dynamic internal and external disturbances. This challenge underscores the urgent need to develop dedicated theoretical models and computational approaches specifically tailored to the unique environmental characteristics of the lunar surface.
In addition, the stable and continuous supply of electricity and thermal energy is essential for life-support systems within a lunar base, including air treatment, oxygen supply, temperature and humidity regulation, lighting, and communications. During the lunar night, extremely low ambient temperatures and substantial heat losses significantly increase the thermal load demand of the base. Meanwhile, the power consumption of scientific instruments, remote sensing equipment, and other facilities may exhibit regular diurnal variations driven by the lunar day-night environment. High-power operational activities are typically conducted during the lunar daytime, while power demand is reduced to a minimum during the lunar night to alleviate overall energy consumption. More critically, in load forecasting, it is essential to strictly distinguish and couple two distinct categories of temperature control objectives: the temperature range required to sustain human life and that required for the normal operation of equipment. Crew habitats must maintain temperature and humidity within an extremely narrow physiological comfort zone (e.g., ~293–297 K), imposing stringent demands on the precision and stability of the air conditioning system. In contrast, many scientific instruments and devices may be designed to operate over a much wider temperature range and could even leverage the extreme cold of the lunar night to achieve certain observational goals, such as infrared astronomy.
Therefore, load forecasting techniques must be capable of decoupling and dynamically coordinating these two vastly different thermal demands, while conducting a detailed analysis of the energy consumption characteristics and operational modes of both life support systems and various types of equipment. Such detailed load prediction provides a fundamental basis for accurate energy system design and optimal energy management under extreme lunar environmental conditions.
At the early stage of lunar base development, energy systems are primarily based on a solar photovoltaic-battery architecture6. For the photovoltaic power system reliant on solar energy, within the 14-day lunar daytime, it must not only meet the energy consumption of the base during the day but also accumulate sufficient energy to support full-load operation throughout the subsequent 14-day lunar night. Therefore, the energy storage system becomes the core hub of the energy supply. Currently, lithium-ion battery packs are universally employed as energy storage devices across various spacecraft in orbit. Their maximum installed capacity has reached 21 kWh, with a specific energy averaging 150 Wh/kg, and the longest operational lifespan can extend to 15 years7.
For a lunar scientific research station, a simplistic “photovoltaic + electrochemical battery” configuration leads to an exponential increase in the required energy storage capacity. Existing studies indicate that under such an architecture, the mass of the energy storage subsystem can account for ~80–90% of the total mass of the entire energy system8; Taking a building with a volume of 54 m³ as an example, the cumulative thermal load during the lunar night is estimated to be about 3400 kWh. Assuming the use of lithium-ion batteries with a maximum energy density of 300 Wh/kg, the mass of the energy storage system required solely to meet lunar-night heating demand would exceed 11 t9. However, in lunar exploration missions, launch vehicle payload constraints on mass and volume are extremely stringent. Excessive energy storage mass would dramatically increase launch costs and technical complexity10. Consequently, under the combined constraints of extreme day-night cycles and harsh environmental conditions, achieving an effective balance among storage capacity, system mass, and energy efficiency remains one of the most critical challenges facing the development of lunar energy systems.
In addition, compared with electrical energy storage, thermal energy storage schemes utilizing in-situ lunar resources may offer superior economic efficiency and practical feasibility. During the lunar daytime, solar thermal energy can be collected by solar collectors and stored within lunar regolith based thermal storage media, which can subsequently be utilized for space heating during the lunar night.
Currently, various heat collection and storage schemes have been proposed, such as the in-situ energy supply system proposed by Li et al.11, which combines solar heat collection with lunar soil sintering for heat storage. During the lunar night, the heat supply power can reach 7.0 kW, and the energy efficiency is about 48%. Hu et al.12 designed a spherical lunar soil heat storage system, and after optimizing the stacking method, the energy storage density reached 0.25 kWh/kg.
Further increasing the thermal storage temperature will give the thermal storage system the potential to generate electricity. Fleith et al.13 proposed that a thermal power generation system based on lunar regolith thermal storage can provide a minimum power output of 36 W within 66 h and has application potential in some polar regions of the moon. However, due to the extremely high-vacuum lunar environment, the thermal energy storage density and heat exchange efficiency of thermal energy storage systems are relatively low, and it is still difficult to support long-term energy demand during the lunar night. It is necessary to further improve the thermal storage density and heating capacity, extend the heating time, and explore integrated energy supply system solutions based on thermal storage.
The extremely wide temperature range for the lunar, spanning ~90–400 K, poses severe challenges to the operation of core equipment in lunar energy systems. For battery systems, low temperatures can lead to increased electrolyte viscosity and decreased ion migration rate, significantly reducing charge and discharge efficiency and even causing a sudden drop in capacity; high temperatures can accelerate the decomposition of electrolyte and the aging of electrode materials, shortening battery cycle life14. Under the extreme thermal cycling conditions of the lunar environment, existing battery technologies can only ensure effective energy storage and release through integrated strategies, including advanced battery management systems, active thermal control measures such as heating and insulation, and optimized thermal resistance design15. In addition, for photovoltaic systems, elevated temperatures significantly reduce the open-circuit voltage and conversion efficiency of solar cells16, while under low-temperature conditions, variations in semiconductor carrier transport characteristics introduce increased uncertainty in output performance17. Prolonged exposure to severe thermal cycling further induces thermal expansion mismatch and thermomechanical fatigue in solar cells and encapsulation structures, accelerating interfacial degradation and failure, and thereby substantially compromising system reliability18. Therefore, the development of energy storage materials capable of operating across a wide temperature range, together with robust thermal management design for key energy subsystems such as photovoltaic system and energy storage units, constitutes a critical technological challenge that must be addressed for future lunar energy systems.
With the continuous improvement and phased development of the functions of the lunar base, the energy structure of photovoltaic + electrochemical battery can no longer meet the energy needs of the lunar base. Existing studies have pointed out through parameterized analysis that although the photovoltaic + electrochemical battery mode is feasible, its quality and cost are unacceptable if it is not coupled with other systems19. The lunar base has diverse missions and a complex implementation environment, requiring the adoption of suitable energy forms based on different mission requirements and environmental characteristics. Therefore, future lunar bases must develop multi-energy coupled integrated supply systems. The core of this concept lies in achieving the coordinated production, storage, conversion, and distribution of multiple forms of energy (such as electrical, thermal, and chemical energy) to facilitate effective dispatching and complementarity among various energy sources, thereby meeting energy demands at different stages. Technically, the lunar energy supply system will feature multi-energy combined power generation, conversion, transmission, and networking of various energy substances such as electricity, heat, hydrogen, oxygen, and water20. However, its structural design is complex, and its operation and control are challenging.
However, this complex system structure presents unprecedented challenges to its operational control, which precisely highlights the lack of intelligent control technology. The capabilities of lunar energy control systems remain inadequate in functions such as power generation forecasting, load forecasting, intelligent dispatching, and fault self-diagnosis21. It also lacks a real-time response mechanism for dynamic states such as day-night transitions, lunar dust obstruction, sudden temperature changes, and battery life degradation, resulting in low system utilization, poor energy efficiency, low reliability, and high redundancy. To ensure the smooth conduct of human lunar exploration activities and the safety of astronauts, the composition and structure of the energy system must be extremely complex. It is necessary to comprehensively improve the autonomous control, management, fault diagnosis, and response capabilities of the energy system, conduct real-time status monitoring, performance prediction, and autonomous decision-making, enhance the reconfigurability and maintainability of the energy system, and ensure high reliability and high safety.
Facing the high vacuum and large temperature fluctuations for lunar environments, accurate prediction of building and equipment loads is crucial to ensuring precise matching of energy supply and demand for lunar bases. To address this issue, this paper proposes developing an unsteady heat transfer mechanism model suitable for lunar building envelopes based on high-precision lunar surface thermal environment data. By analyzing a database of typical lunar load scenarios, an accurate prediction technology for lunar base building and equipment loads can be constructed.
First, it is necessary to integrate lunar orbiter data and theoretical models to establish a spatiotemporal distribution database of direct solar radiation, lunar albedo, and temperature at different latitudes and terrains, forming a standard thermal boundary condition dataset for lunar base site selection thermal environment analysis. Second, it is necessary to establish a set of thermal property parameters applicable to lunar soil, lunar dust, multilayer composite materials, and phase change materials under ultra-high vacuum and wide temperature ranges and develop a thermal mechanism model for lunar base envelope to solve unsteady-state heat conduction and radiation boundary value problems. Subsequently, through analysis and simulation, the power time-varying laws of life support systems and scientific research equipment in lunar day/night modes will be quantified, and a typical lunar load scenario library will be established. Finally, a lunar building load calculation model integrating “high-precision database of lunar surface thermal environment – unsteady-state heat transfer mechanism model of envelope – typical lunar load scenario library – load generation” will be formed, as outlined in Fig. 4. This model thus provides a reliable data foundation and simulation tools for energy system capacity planning, topology design, and operation strategy optimization of lunar bases, achieving key technological breakthroughs in energy self-sufficiency and safe operation of the base.
Main research contents of accurate prediction technology for lunar base building and equipment load.
Under the long-term operation conditions of a lunar base, the energy system must achieve continuous, stable, and efficient energy supply under extremely prolonged day-night cycle, large temperature fluctuations, and strict mass and volume constraints. Therefore, a systematic breakthrough in efficient energy storage and power generation technologies is required. Regarding this key technological issue, this paper proposes researching in-situ resource thermal storage technology based on lunar in-situ resources, developing high-energy-density wide-temperature-range energy storage technology and extreme wide-temperature-range photovoltaic power generation performance and temperature control technology, forming a multi-form energy storage synergistic lunar energy architecture, as illustrated in Fig. 5.
Main research contents of key technologies for efficient energy storage and photovoltaic power generation in the extreme lunar environment.
First, thermal energy storage technologies based on lunar in-situ resource utilization are introduced, with a focus on exploring the feasibility of using lunar regolith and its sintered products as thermal storage media. The thermophysical properties, cyclic stability, and structural integration strategies of regolith-based thermal storage materials are systematically investigated. On this basis, a “solar thermal collection-lunar regolith thermal storage-night time heat release” heating scheme is developed to decouple the high-proportion thermal load of lunar bases from electrical energy storage systems, thereby substantially reducing the required capacity of battery storage.
Second, in response to the extreme environmental characteristics of the lunar, including prolonged day-night cycle and large temperature fluctuations, this study investigates high-energy-density, wide-temperature-range energy storage technologies capable of supporting ultra-long-timescale, cross-period energy regulation under extreme thermal conditions. The research focuses on overcoming the limitations of traditional lithium-ion batteries in terms of specific energy, system mass ratio, and operation in low-temperature environments. It investigates the adaptability and thermal management system design of high-specific-energy storage technologies such as regenerative fuel cells, high-energy-density lithium-ion batteries, lithium-sulfur batteries, solid-state batteries, and metal-air batteries in the long-term, high-temperature-varying lunar environment.
Finally, a coupled thermo-photoelectric model of photovoltaic modules is developed by comprehensively accounting for solar irradiance, radiative heat dissipation, and structural heat conduction. On this basis, the steady-state operating temperature and output characteristics of photovoltaic modules under different diurnal conditions are predicted, enabling a systematic evaluation of the underlying mechanisms through which temperature variations affect photovoltaic conversion efficiency and operational stability. The results provide quantitative guidance for optimizing photovoltaic module structures and array configuration parameters. Furthermore, integrated photovoltaic-thermal system configurations are investigated. By incorporating thermal energy storage technologies based on lunar in situ resources, active regulation of photovoltaic module temperature is achieved, thereby mitigating the adverse effects of extreme thermal cycling on power generation efficiency and service life. This approach significantly enhances the long-term reliability and energy utilization efficiency of photovoltaic power generation systems operating in the lunar environment.
Ultimately, by integrating lunar in situ thermal energy storage, high-energy-density energy storage technologies with wide operating temperature ranges, and photovoltaic-thermal synergistic power generation systems, a comprehensive technical framework is established for the efficient energy acquisition, cross-period storage, and stable utilization of lunar base energy systems. This integrated approach enables a lightweight and highly reliable energy architecture, tailored to the extreme environmental conditions of future lunar bases.
To meet the long-term, continuous, and multi-mission operational requirements of future lunar bases, research on lunar energy systems must urgently evolve from single-mode energy supply schemes toward integrated energy systems characterized by multi-energy collaboration, system-level optimization, and intelligent operation. As a first step, a multi-source complementary lunar energy system architecture is established. This paper proposes a lunar energy system framework that enables synergistic conversion and cascade utilization of multiple energy and material carriers including solar energy, electricity, thermal energy, hydrogen, oxygen, and water to solve the problem of continuous energy supply during the lunar night, as shown in Fig. 6.
Conceptual design of the lunar base energy system.
This system comprehensively considers various energy forms, including solar photovoltaic, solar thermal collectors, regenerative fuel cells, high-energy-density wide-temperature-range energy storage, and in-situ resource thermal storage. The system’s energy inputs include solar energy during the lunar day, lunar water, Earth replenishment water, and lunar soil. It is particularly worth noting that the hydrogen and oxygen within the system are not primary energy sources in themselves, but rather “energy carriers” that store electrical energy in the form of chemical energy through the process of water electrolysis. During the lunar day, solar energy is generated by photovoltaic power generation to provide basic electricity for equipment and hydrogen production at the lunar base, with surplus electricity stored in batteries to power the lunar base during the lunar night. During the lunar day, solar thermal collectors collect solar heat and store it in lunar soil thermal storage, providing heat to the lunar base during the lunar night. During the lunar day, an electrolyzer uses photovoltaic power to electrolyze lunar water or Earth replenishment water to produce hydrogen and oxygen, which are then stored in a storage tank. During the lunar night, hydrogen and oxygen are used to generate electricity via fuel cells, producing water. The heat generated by the fuel cells is recovered as waste heat, providing a heat source for the system’s stable operation in low-temperature environments.
Regarding the sourcing of key equipment and resources, differentiated considerations should be applied based on the developmental phase of the lunar base. In the initial construction phase, due to the immaturity of in-situ resource utilization technologies, core equipment with high safety requirements—such as hydrogen and oxygen storage tanks, electrolyzers, and fuel cell stacks—must be directly transported from Earth. As the base expands and technologies mature, in-situ resource utilization strategies can be progressively introduced. On one hand, the exploration and extraction of lunar polar water ice can reduce reliance on Earth resupply and lower long-term operational costs. On the other hand, research into the feasibility of manufacturing non-pressurized or low-pressure storage tanks using lunar regolith through techniques such as 3D printing can further enhance the system’s material self-sufficiency.
Secondly, research will be conducted on optimization methods for lunar energy system configuration. Considering different base sizes, mission phases, and deployment environments, and based on lunar base building and equipment load prediction technologies, multi-objective optimization and parametric analysis will be used to seek the optimal balance between energy system quality, reliability, energy efficiency, and cost. Then, the coupling mechanism and operation control strategies of multi-energy systems will be studied, with a focus on breakthroughs in energy dispatching under long-cycle, large temperature difference, and strong load fluctuation conditions to achieve stable system operation.
Finally, intelligent and autonomous energy management technologies will be introduced to develop a smart energy management system that integrates accurate forecasting, intelligent scheduling, and self-diagnosis. This system will optimize and adjust energy flow in real time, improving energy utilization efficiency, operational stability, and fault tolerance. Through this research, a safe, efficient, and scalable theoretical and technological framework for lunar base energy systems will be gradually established, providing reliable support for long-term manned lunar habitation and space exploration missions.
The grand vision of 21st-century space exploration has humanity’s gaze firmly focused on the lunar, steadily progressing towards the goal of establishing a long-term, sustainable habitat there. Achieving this goal depends on overcoming two crucial and interconnected challenges: to ensure a continuous and stable energy supply and to construct a safe and habitable artificial environment. In this context, all lunar surface activities must rely on a highly autonomous, reliable, and intelligent energy system. This paper starts with the environmental challenges faced by the energy system of the lunar base and suggests that subsequent research should focus on technologies for accurate prediction of the load of buildings and equipment on the lunar base, key technologies for efficient energy storage and photovoltaic power generation, and technologies for the construction and optimization of multi-energy collaborative energy systems on the lunar base. These researches aim to solve the design problems of thermal and efficient energy systems on the lunar base under multiple extreme physical constraints such as prolonged day–night cycle, large temperature fluctuations, high vacuum, and intense radiation, and ensure energy self-sufficiency for long-term personnel stays on the base.
Despite existing technological bottlenecks and risks, this work provides a systematic and clear reference framework for the design of lunar base energy systems. It is recommended that future lunar base construction prioritize in-situ resource utilization, system coupling design, and intelligent management. With continuous innovation and optimization in materials, energy storage technologies, and intelligent control technologies, establishing stable and sustainable human settlements on the moon will become more feasible.
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The authors gratefully acknowledge the technical support and insightful discussions from colleagues at the Chinese Academy of Building Research and CSSC Systems Engineering Research Institute. The study was sponsored by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (52578149).
Chinese Academy of Building Research, Beijing, China
Ji Li, Wei Xu, Huiyu Xue, Jing Yuan & Tongtao Wei
Jianke EET Co. Ltd, Beijing, China
Ji Li, Wei Xu, Huiyu Xue, Jing Yuan & Tongtao Wei
CSSC Systems Engineering Research Institute, Beijing, China
Jie Yang
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Ji Li: conceptualization, writing–original draft, writing–review&editing, project administration. Wei Xu: writing–review&editing, supervision, formal analysis (focus on environmental constraints and load analysis). Jie Yang: writing–review&editing, investigation, formal analysis (focus on energy storage and power generation technologies). Huiyu Xue: writing–review&editing, investigation, resources. Jing Yuan: writing–review&editing, investigation, visualization. Tongtao Wei: writing–review&editing, validation. All authors have read and approved the final version of the manuscript.
Correspondence to Ji Li.
J.L., as the Editorial Board Member of npj Space Exploration, was not involved in the journal’s review of, or decisions related to, this manuscript. The other authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
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Li, J., Xu, W., Yang, J. et al. Key technological challenges and systemic solutions for lunar base energy systems designed for long-term deployment needs. npj Space Explor. 2, 12 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s44453-026-00030-3
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