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Scientific Reports volume 15, Article number: 1336 (2025)
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This study investigates a comprehensive enhancement strategy for photovoltaic (PV) panel efficiency, focusing on increasing electrical output through the integration of parabolic reflectors, advanced cooling mechanisms, and thermoelectric generation. Parabolic reflectors are implemented in the system to maximize solar irradiance on the PV panel’s surface, while a specialized cooling system is introduced to regulate temperature distribution across the silicon layer. This cooling system consists of a finned duct filled with paraffin (RT35HC) and enhanced with SWCNT nanoparticles, which improve the thermal properties of the paraffin, facilitating more effective heat dissipation. The PV module is also integrated with a TEG (thermoelectric generator) to capture excess thermal energy and convert it into additional electrical power, allowing for a more efficient overall system. To simulate the heat flux introduced by the reflectors, SolTrace software was employed, while the unsteady, three-dimensional thermal behavior of the system was analyzed using ANSYS FLUENT. Simulated results demonstrated that, with the cooling system in place, the PV efficiency (ηel, PV) improves by approximately 16.46% in clean conditions. However, dust accumulation on the panel significantly impacts performance, reducing ηel, PV by around 46.48% after 60 min. The inclusion of fin structures further optimizes the system, boosting overall efficiency by approximately 6.77% in clean conditions and 3.78% under dust-affected conditions. Additionally, thermal efficiency for the clean state increased by about 8.47% due to the fins. Notably, the combined effects of parabolic reflectors, fin-enhanced cooling, and TEG integration yield an electrical output power approximately 2.94 times greater than that of a PV panel without any reflector or cooling modifications.
Energy has always been a crucial factor of human advancement, supporting nearly every aspect of modern life and propelling economic and industrial development worldwide. At present, fossil fuels represent more than 80% of global energy consumption. However, these resources are limited and carry significant environmental costs, contributing to high greenhouse gas emissions and exacerbating global warming. The International Energy Agency (IEA) projects that dependence on fossil fuels will fall below 75% by 2030 and drop to approximately 60% by 2050, indicating a significant transition toward renewable energy sources1. With energy demand surging due to population growth, urbanization, and industrial expansion, solar PV units are essential for mitigating greenhouse gas emissions. Advanced economies have made notable progress, achieving a 4.5% reduction in emissions in 2023—returning to levels not seen in the last fifty years—largely due to the increasing adoption of cleaner energy solutions2. Solar energy has become one of the most promising and sustainable resources, providing a viable solution to the increasing global energy demand while preserving environmental integrity. Concentrating photovoltaic (CPV) technology improves the efficiency of photovoltaic systems by integrating PV panels with parabolic reflectors. This configuration amplifies solar irradiance directed at the PV cells, resulting in higher power output. However, this concentration of sunlight can cause PV cells to be warmer, potentially diminishing electrical efficiency and reducing the system’s lifespan. Therefore, effective cooling is essential in CPV systems to regulate excess heat and ensure optimal operating temperatures3,4. Recent developments have seen the incorporation of thermoelectric generators (TEGs) into concentrating photovoltaic (CPV) systems, resulting in what are known as CPVT-TEG systems. These TEGs convert surplus thermal energy into additional electrical energy through the Seebeck effect, offering a dual-output mechanism that optimizes solar energy utilization within the CPVT framework. By leveraging both photovoltaic and thermoelectric effects, CPVT systems can significantly boost the overall performance of solar power conversion4,5. To intensify the thermal management and efficiency of CPVT systems, researchers have investigated nanoparticle-enhanced phase change materials (NEPCM) as innovative cooling solutions. NEPCM, which consists of paraffin infused with nanoparticles, provides superior thermal conductivity and effective heat storage capabilities, making it an ideal cooling medium. When integrated with CPVT systems, NEPCM serves as a thermal buffer, effectively absorbing and dissipating the heat produced by the photovoltaic cells while ensuring stable operating temperatures6.
Kazem et al.7 scrutinized a study examining the electrical efficiency (EE) and thermoelectric (TE) performance of various photovoltaic-thermal (PVT) flow configurations. Their findings indicated that the spiral flow configuration achieved the greatest ηel, PV, while the direct flow system followed closely behind. The sheet flow configuration had the lowest efficiency among the three. In their study, Li et al.8 developed a hybrid PVT panel that integrates PCM to address various solar energy needs within buildings. Their thermal system operates under both H2O-based and air-based conditions, effectively catering to heating demands across different seasons. The phase change material plays a crucial role by absorbing excess heat that the thermal system cannot utilize. Cross-season testing outputs indicated that the overall performance reaches 39.4%. Additionally, the economic evaluation revealed that the payback period for this system in low-latitude regions is estimated at 13.1 years, highlighting its potential for energy savings. Salama et al.9 presented an innovative hybrid solar system that combines PV panel and distillation. Their outputs revealed a gain output ratio of 1.38, highlighting a substantial intensification in energy efficiency. Arora et al.10 investigated the performance and thermo-physical properties of a CPVT integrated double-slope solar still, which was enhanced by helically coiled tubes and nanofluids. Their findings showed a notable improvement in the system’s heat transfer coefficient—up to 76.7%—when a helically coiled aluminum heat exchanger was used with SWCNT-water-based nanofluid. Additionally, the system’s total yield increased by 65.7% with SWCNT and by 28.1% with MWCNT, highlighting the effectiveness of nanofluids in enhancing solar still efficiency. In the study by Zhao et al.11, a new solar system utilized an activated carbon-methanol working pair. Two-dimensional numerical models were developed and then simulated for performance. They showed that finned tubes showed a significantly lower gradient of approximately 4 °C, indicating improved heat distribution in the finned design. In the study by Du et al.12, a PVT system incorporating a Tesla valve was proposed to address cooling challenges. Their results demonstrated that the Tesla valve significantly enhanced cooling performance, allowing for effective heat dissipation and efficient energy storage. With this configuration, the system achieved the ηel, PV of 16.32% and the ηth of 59.65%, underscoring the Tesla valve’s capability to boost the total productivity of PVT. Attia et al.13 scrutinized a comprehensive 3D modeling comparing the efficiency of a PVT system that employs combined cooling. They calculated the mean daily thermal efficiency at optimal conditions, resulting in values of 56.3% for the finned configuration and 50.4% for the non-finned setup. In their experimental study, Shiravi et al.14 illustrated the efficacy of nanofluid cooling in solar panel performance, showing that this cooling method could enhance efficiency by approximately 54%. Nada et al.15 explored the use of PCM enhanced with nanopowders for cooling PV systems. Their findings indicated that integrating the PV system with NEPCM improved performance by approximately 13.2%, while PCM cooling yielded an increase of around 5.7%.
This work introduces a novel approach to enhancing photovoltaic (PV) performance by integrating a parabolic reflector and a dual-function cooling mechanism, comprising a paraffin-based phase change material (PCM) infused with single-walled carbon nanotube (SWCNT) nanoparticles, combined with a thermoelectric generator (TEG) to capture and convert excess thermal energy. Unlike traditional PV systems, where temperature rise and dust accumulation significantly impact efficiency, this configuration addresses these challenges by employing both advanced cooling and energy-harvesting strategies. In existing studies, either reflectors or cooling mechanisms have been separately incorporated into PV systems, but the integration of a parabolic reflector with a nanoparticle-enhanced PCM and TEG remains largely unexplored. Previous research has often focused on single cooling methods or individual enhancement techniques without combining these elements in a holistic design. Furthermore, limited attention has been given to dynamic environmental factors, such as the variable heat flux simulated in this study, and the impact of dust deposition, which has been shown to degrade PV performance over time. The innovation of current article lies in the combined use of SolTrace for precise reflector modeling, heat flux variation analysis across PV layers, and the layered structure’s response to dust accumulation. Additionally, the cooling mechanism using RT35HC paraffin, enhanced with SWCNT nanoparticles and fin structures, provides a more efficient thermal pathway, reducing operating temperatures more effectively than standard PCM or fin-only approaches. The integration of a TEG further leverages thermal energy that would otherwise be lost, contributing additional electrical power and improving overall system efficiency. This integrated design addresses key research gaps by offering a synergistic PV system capable of mitigating heat and dust-related losses, extending durability, and achieving a higher overall power output. In comparison to previous work, this approach provides a more comprehensive solution to longstanding limitations in PV technology, making it highly relevant for advancing sustainable, high-performance solar energy systems.
In this study, an integrated approach has been developed to boost the efficiency of PV panels through the energy-capturing techniques. A parabolic reflector has been incorporated to intensify solar irradiance on the PV panel surface, thereby enhancing electrical output. However, this intensified irradiance also results in elevated operating temperatures, which can negatively impact PV performance if not effectively controlled. To address this issue, a cooling system has been implemented beneath the PV panel, using a container filled with paraffin (RT35HC) enhanced with single-walled carbon nanotube (SWCNT) nanoparticles to increase thermal conductivity. The container is also equipped with an array of fins to promote conductive heat dissipation across the PV panel surface. The optical behavior of the parabolic reflector was simulated using SolTrace, allowing for the calculation of variable heat fluxes across different layers of the PV system, providing an accurate representation of dynamic solar conditions. Dust accumulation, a factor known to obstruct light transmission through the PV glass layer and degrade performance, has also been accounted for in the model to reflect realistic environmental impacts on PV efficiency. In addition, a thermoelectric generator (TEG) has been integrated into the system to capture excess thermal energy and convert it into supplementary electrical power, enhancing the overall energy output. A three-dimensional, unsteady simulation of the system was conducted using the Finite Volume Method (FVM), which enabled detailed analysis of transient thermal behavior within the PV module. This configuration addresses key issues associated with temperature regulation and dust deposition, offering a comprehensive model for improving both thermal and electrical performance in PV systems. By incorporating reflectors, variable heat flux analysis, and the benefits of TEG integration, this study presents a promising solution for achieving and maintaining higher PV efficiencies under realistic operating conditions. The system studied here includes a monocrystalline photovoltaic (PV) panel equipped with a parabolic reflector, as illustrated in Fig. 1. This figure details the thicknesses of each layer within the PV setup, including the finned container filled with paraffin, which has a thickness of 0.15 m. To create a nanoparticle-enhanced phase change material (NEPCM), paraffin (RT35HC) was combined with single-walled carbon nanotube (SWCNT) nanoparticles at a volume fraction of 0.05, allowing for a homogeneous material model to be applied. The dimensions of the PV panel, as well as the optical properties of its layers, have been derived from the parameters outlined in Ref16. Six simulation cases were conducted in this study, as detailed in Table 1, examining the effects of fin installation under both clean and dust-affected conditions. The features of the selected materials are illustrated in Table 216,17,18. To model the paraffin cooling system, the below equations have been applied19,20.
The CPVT unit in existence of finned NEPCM container.
For modeling the solid layers of the PV system, the following equations are required to be solved21.
To calculate the electrical PV efficiency, TEG efficiency, thermal efficiency, and total efficiency, the definitions have been applied16,21,22.
To account for the effect of dust deposition, the dust density specified in Ref.23 has been used, and the transmissivity values were selected based on their data. In calculating the properties of NEPCM, a homogeneous mixture formulation, as detailed in Ref.17, has been utilized.
To assess how the reflector impacts the distribution of heat flux across the PV panel, simulations were performed using SolTrace. The modeling and thermal behavior analysis for a 60-minute operating period were conducted in ANSYS FLUENT. This setup aims to thoroughly investigate the combined influence of reflectors, fin structures, and NEPCM on the behavior of PV panels under realistic operational scenarios. In the current work, the air temperature and wind speed are set to 298.15 K, reflecting standard environmental conditions. The side walls of the photovoltaic panel are presumed to be insulated, meaning there is no heat transfer across these boundaries, which simplifies the thermal analysis. To exploit the symmetrical nature of the problem, only half of the domain is simulated, reducing computational effort while still providing accurate results. The convergence criterion for the simulation is defined by a residual value of 1 × 10− 6 for all scalar quantities. This ensures that the solution is sufficiently accurate before concluding the simulation. The numerical discretization of the advection terms employs a second-order upwind scheme, which enhances accuracy in capturing the convective transport phenomena within the system. For the pressure interpolation, the PRESTO method is utilized. This method provides stable and reliable pressure fields, particularly in incompressible flow scenarios. The pressure-velocity coupling for this flow is addressed using the Coupled method, which solves the continuity and momentum equations simultaneously. This approach is particularly advantageous in scenarios with strong interactions between pressure and velocity, leading to improved convergence rates and more accurate predictions of flow behavior. Overall, these numerical techniques and boundary conditions are integral to accurately modeling the complex interactions within the photovoltaic system and ensuring robust and reliable simulation outcomes.
This article explores a novel integration of a photovoltaic (PV) panel with a parabolic reflector, aimed at optimizing solar energy capture while employing advanced cooling strategies to maintain efficiency. A container filled with paraffin (RT35HC), mixed with single-walled carbon nanotube (SWCNT) nanoparticles, is positioned beneath the PV panel to act as a cooling medium. To further promote heat dissipation, the container is equipped with an array of fins, enhancing conductive heat transfer throughout the paraffin-based coolant. The parabolic reflector’s performance has been rigorously modeled in SolTrace to simulate its behavior under varying sunlight angles, allowing for the calculation of dynamic, layer-specific heat fluxes. This enables a realistic representation of heat sources across the PV system’s layers, where the efficacy of dust in the glass surface is also considered. Such deposition can degrade panel efficiency, making it a critical variable to consider for long-term reliability and performance. Additionally, a thermoelectric generator (TEG) is incorporated within the system to capture excess thermal energy and convert it into electrical power, contributing to a higher overall power output. The entire system’s thermal and electrical behaviors are modeled using a 3D unsteady FVM approach, providing detailed insights into the transient thermal interactions across the PV layers. This work introduces an innovative PV-TEG system configuration, enriched by the inclusion of reflectors, PCM cooling, nanoparticle enhancement, and fins. Such a design addresses both efficiency losses from overheating and dust accumulation while maximizing the panel’s output through hybrid energy harvesting. The study’s comprehensive simulation and modeling approach mark a significant advancement in solar energy systems, demonstrating potential pathways to higher efficiency and more sustainable power generation in real-world conditions.
To verify the numerical procedure, two previous studies were selected that examined solar panels in conjunction with PCM. The first phase of verification involved simulating the experimental setup presented by Huang et al.24, where the PV temperature was compared with the experimental data (see Fig. 2). The simulation results demonstrated high accuracy, with an error percentage of less than 4%, indicating a strong correlation among the simulated and emperical temperatures. In the second phase, the analysis focused on a PV panel equipped with a water cooling. The results from this simulation were compared to the findings of Yu et al.25, specifically regarding the absorber temperature (see Fig. 3). This comparison also revealed a good match between the simulation outputs and the previous data, confirming the reliability of the numerical model. Overall, these verification steps demonstrate that the modeling approach employed in this study possesses a high degree of accuracy. Consequently, the same numerical methodology can be confidently applied to evaluate the current problem involving the integration of the cooling unit and PCM within the panel. This reliability not only strengthens the validity of the results but also enhances the potential for optimizing solar panel performance in practical applications.
Verification based on TPV against experimental output of Ref24.
Verification based on absorber temperature against experimental output of Ref25.
The configuration of the grid utilized in the simulation is depicted in Fig. 4, specifically for the case involving a finned container. The decision to divide the solid layer into four sections arises from the application of non-uniform heat flux in this study. Each section is assigned an average heat flux value relevant to its specific region, allowing for precise calculations of heat sources in each part. To optimize computational efficiency, it is crucial to select appropriate values for the time step and the number of elements in the simulation. Figures 5 and 6 illustrate the results of various cases that were simulated. Among these, the most complex case (Case 3) indicated that the optimal number of elements and time step for accurate simulation results are 4,052,418 and 1 s, respectively. This careful calibration of the simulation parameters is essential for achieving reliable results while minimizing computational costs. By ensuring that the grid configuration and heat flux distribution are accurately represented, the overall simulation can effectively capture the thermal dynamics of the system under study.
Hybrid system meshing in ANSYS MESHING software.
Time step tests for reducing calculation cost for case 3.
Various mesh resolutions for case 3.
The distribution of heat flux over the photovoltaic panel, in the presence of reflectors, has been analyzed using SolTrace software. The direct solar irradiation for this analysis is set at 850 W/m2, with concentrator reflectivity assumed to be 0.9. Three different focal distances were evaluated, and the corresponding output values are depicted in Fig. 7, showing average heat flux values of 1500, 2000, and 2400 W/m2 for each configuration. The implementation of concentrating photovoltaic (CPV) systems significantly impacts the temperature of the panel (TPV), as illustrated in Fig. 8. For the third CPV configuration, TPV increases by approximately 10.14% over time. As the configurations progress from the first to the third, the increase in TPV is noted to be 3.71% at t = 10 min and 7.23% at t = 60 min. It is significant to note that the critical temperature threshold for the present panel is 90 °C. Exceeding this temperature can negatively affect the panel’s efficiency and lifespan. Therefore, to prevent the panel from reaching this critical TPV and to extend its operational longevity, the implementation of effective cooling strategies is essential. This reinforces the significance of incorporating cooling systems alongside CPV technology, as they not only optimize performance but also safeguard the structural integrity of the photovoltaic modules under concentrated solar conditions.
Outputs of SolTrace simulation with average values of (a) 1500 W/m2, (b) 2000 W/m2, (c) 2400 W/m2.
The values of TPV for various CPV system.
Figure 9 presents the TPV across all simulated cases. In the clean state, the integration of a cooling zone leads to a decrease in TPV of approximately 3.84% at t = 10 min and 7.15% at t = 60 min. This reduction highlights the usefulness of the cooling system in maintaining lower operating temperatures, which is essential for enhancing the efficiency and longevity of the PV panel. In contrast, under dusty conditions, the cooling zone still contributes to a reduction in TPV, although to a lesser extent. Specifically, the temperature decreases by about 2.17% at t = 10 min and 3.07% at t = 60 min. The cooling system’s ability to lessen the effect of dust accumulation is evident, but the effectiveness is somewhat diminished due to the insulating effect of dust on the panel surface. Notably, when dust is present for 60 min, the TPV decreases by an additional 2.13%. This indicates that while the cooling system provides some benefit, the overall thermal performance is adversely affected by dust deposition, which hinders heat dissipation and leads to higher operational temperatures. These results emphasize the critical role of cooling strategies in enhancing perfomance, particularly in maintaining optimal performance in both clean and dusty environments. Effective temperature management not only improves efficiency but also helps to prevent potential damage to the PV system caused by excessive heat.
Behavior of panel temperature when (a) clean case, (b) dust case.
Figure 10 illustrates the variation in electrical photovoltaic (PV) efficiency across all simulated cases. The inclusion of a cooling zone significantly reduces the temperature of the silicon layer, while the addition of fins further enhances this cooling effect. Consequently, the electrical PV efficiency (ηel, PV) improves with the integration of a paraffin layer, and this enhancement is more pronounced in systems equipped with fins. Despite the advantages of cooling, the presence of dust has a detrimental impact on the ηel, PV. Dust accumulation blocks sunlight from reaching the silicon layer, leading to a reduction in output power. Interestingly, the behavior of ηel,PV in dusty conditions varies with time. As time progresses, ηel, PV decreases across all cases. In the absence of dust, the implementation of the cooling system boosts ηel, PV by approximately 6.62% at t = 10 min and 16.46% at t = 60 min. When dust is present, the cooling system still improves ηel,PV, albeit to a lesser extent, with increases of about 7.7% at t = 10 min and 5.79% at t = 60 min. Moreover, the introduction of fins in the paraffin zone contributes additional improvements to ηel, PV, with increases of approximately 2.62% in clean conditions and 2.04% when dust is present. Notably, the negative impact of dust deposition is significant, resulting in an overall reduction of ηel, PV by about 46.48%. The electrical power is detailed in Fig. 11. At t = 60 min, the installation of fins results in a 2.04% increase in electrical power. Furthermore, incorporating the cooling unit enhances power output by 5.89% in the presence of dust and by 12.38% in the absence of dust.
Electrical efficiency reduction with time.
Electrical power for all simulated cases.
The stored energy (SE) within the paraffin zone is illustrated in Fig. 12. This value has been calculated using an equation that accounts for both latent and sensible heat contributions, providing a comprehensive understanding of the energy storage capabilities of the system22. In conditions where dust is present, the implementation of fins results in an increase in SE of approximately 4.06%. This enhancement can be accredited to the fins’ ability to improve thermal conductivity, facilitating more efficient heat transfer within the paraffin. Conversely, in the absence of dust, the increase in SE with the addition of fins is even more pronounced, reaching about 8.47%. This demonstrates the significant role of fins in optimizing the ηth of the paraffin cooling system under favorable conditions. However, it is important to note that dust accumulation adversely affects energy storage. Specifically, the presence of dust leads to a reduction in SE of about 14.74%. This decrease can be explained by the insulating effect of dust, which limits the amount of heat absorbed by the paraffin and subsequently reduces its capacity to store energy. These findings highlight the serious need for operative cleaning and maintenance strategies to preserve the efficiency of energy storage systems, particularly in environments susceptible to dust deposition. Overall, the results emphasize the importance of both thermal management and environmental considerations in optimizing the performance of paraffin-based energy storage systems.
Effect of installing fin on stored energy for both clean and dust case.
The total efficiency (ηtot) of the system has been calculated by summing all types of efficiencies, and the resulting values are presented in Fig. 13. After 60 min of operation, ηtot experiences a decline of approximately 20.92% due to dust deposition on the glass, illustrating the detrimental effect of environmental factors on solar energy conversion. The implementation of a finned paraffin container at the base of the panel significantly improves ηtot, resulting in increases of about 6.77% in clean conditions and 3.78% in dusty conditions. This enhancement highlights the effectiveness of thermal management techniques in mitigating efficiency losses associated with dust deposition.
Effect of installing fin on total efficiency for both clean and dust case.
Additionally, the total electrical efficiency for cases 3 and 6 is shown at various time intervals in Fig. 14. After 60 min, the installation of a TEG contributes to an increase in electrical efficiency of approximately 11.07% for Case 3 (clean conditions) and 8.15% for Case 6 (dusty conditions). This indicates that TEGs can effectively harness waste heat and convert it into additional electrical power, thereby enhancing the overall system performance. However, as time progresses from 10 min to 60 min, the total electrical efficiency declines, with reductions of about 5.43% for Case 3 and 0.52% for Case 6. This decline emphasizes the need for effective cooling and maintenance strategies to sustain optimal efficiency over prolonged operational periods, particularly in environments prone to dust accumulation. Overall, these findings underscore the prominence of integrating cooling units and TEGs to boost the performance and longevity of photovoltaic panels in varying environmental conditions.
The impact of adding TEG on the electrical efficiency for (a) case 3, (b) case 6.
Figures 15 and 16 illustrate the cases incorporating fins, depicting both the TPV distribution and the liquid fraction (LF) contours over time. As time progresses, the PV panel’s temperature rises, resulting in an increased rate of melting in the PCM. In these visualizations, the presence of dust correlates with a slightly lower panel temperature, as dust partially obstructs sunlight, reducing the heat absorbed by the panel. The melting process begins in the upper layer, where the PV panel experiences the highest temperatures due to direct solar exposure. The inclusion of fins notably accelerates the melting rate, as they facilitate greater conductive heat transfer throughout the PCM, thereby improving thermal regulation. This enhancement in melting rate provided by the fins helps maintain more stable temperatures across the PV panel, which is crucial for optimizing electrical efficiency and prolonging the panel’s operational lifespan.
Contour plot presentation of finned cooling system on panel temperature.
The distribution of LF for case 3.
Figure 17 presents a comparative analysis of the top-performing cases from this study against a baseline PV panel without cooling or reflector enhancements. The figure highlights the significant impact of integrating parabolic reflectors and advanced cooling mechanisms on PV performance. Notably, the electrical power output of the optimal configuration, which combines a parabolic reflector and a finned cooling system filled with NEPCM, is approximately 2.9 times greater than that of a PV panel without these enhancements. This comparison underscores the effectiveness of these improvement techniques, illustrating how the added components enhance irradiance capture and thermal regulation. The parabolic reflector amplifies the solar irradiance received by the PV, while the cooling unit helps mitigate the heat buildup that typically accompanies increased irradiance, thereby preventing efficiency loss due to thermal stress. Together, these enhancements result in a significant boost in electrical output, showcasing the potential of such integrated approaches to substantially elevate the efficiency and viability of PV systems in various operational environments.
Comparison present CPVT with transitional PV without cooling in view of (a) electrical efficiency and (b) power generation between.
This study presents an advanced photovoltaic (PV) system enhanced by the integration of a parabolic reflector, a paraffin-based cooling layer with nanoparticle enhancement, and a thermoelectric generator (TEG) for supplementary energy harvesting. The inclusion of RT35HC paraffin, infused with SWCNT nanoparticles, acts as an effective cooling medium beneath the PV panel, further improved by fin arrangements to enhance thermal conduction. The dynamic behavior of the parabolic reflector was carefully simulated in SolTrace, accounting for variable heat fluxes across layers and the efficacy of dust accumulation in the glass surface. This configuration aims to mitigate temperature-related performance loss and dust deposition issues, both critical factors for sustaining PV efficiency. Additionally, by incorporating a TEG, the system captures excess heat, converting it to electricity and significantly boosting the overall power output. These findings underscore the potential of combining reflectors, phase change materials, and hybrid cooling methods to achieve higher efficiency and more resilient solar energy systems. Six distinct cases have been simulated to assess the effects of cooling and dust on PV panel performance: (1) no cooling system, no dust; (2) presence of a NEPCM-based cooling zone, no dust; (3) finned cooling zone filled with NEPCM, no dust; (4) no cooling system, presence of dust; (5) NEPCM cooling zone, presence of dust; and (6) finned NEPCM cooling zone, presence of dust. These cases explore how thermal management and environmental factors, such as dust, impact both the ηel, PV and ηth of PV panels. Dust presence was found to significantly decrease PV efficiency (ηel, PV) by approximately 46.48%, underscoring the importance of regular cleaning or dust mitigation for PV systems. For dust-free conditions, the implementation of a cooling system effectively increased ηel, PV, with gains of around 6.62% and 16.46% observed at 10 and 60 min, respectively, demonstrating that prolonged operation benefits considerably from cooling. Among the configurations, the case with both parabolic reflector and cooling system achieved electrical power output approximately 2.9 times higher than a basic PV panel without cooling or reflector. However, as operational time increased from 10 min to 60 min, a gradual decline in overall electrical efficiency was observed, at 5.43% for Case 3 (no dust) and only 0.52% for Case 6 (with dust), suggesting that cooling and dust management can help sustain system efficiency over time. Further, the integration of a thermoelectric generator (TEG) notably boosted efficiency; at 60 min, TEG installation improved electrical efficiency by about 11.07% for Case 3 and 8.15% for Case 6, indicating that TEGs can offset some efficiency losses due to dust accumulation. In dust-laden conditions, fins in the cooling system increased stored energy by approximately 4.06%, while in dust-free conditions, fins achieved an 8.47% increase, demonstrating that finned cooling is particularly beneficial for clean environments. Additionally, equipping the system with a cooling zone significantly lowered the TPV, with reductions of about 3.84% and 7.15% observed at 10 and 60 min, respectively, in dust-free conditions. This decrease in TPV highlights the effectiveness of the cooling system in preventing thermal buildup, ultimately helping to maintain both PV performance and material longevity. These findings demonstrated the considerable performance benefits of integrating cooling systems, dust management, and TEGs into PV setups, offering a promising pathway to achieving higher efficiencies and extended operational lifespans in real-world applications.
All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article.
The intensity of sun’s irradiation
Latent heat
Thermal conductivity (W m−1 K−1)
Panel’s surface area (m2)
Sensible enthalpy (J kg−1)
Latent enthalpy (J kg−1)
Source term (W)
Times (s)
Hot side’s temperature (K)
Cold side’s temperature (K)
Liquid fraction
Viscosity
Efficiency
Transmissivity
Nano-enhanced phase change material
Thermoelectric generator
Photovoltaic thermal
Figure of merit
Single-walled carbon nanotube
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Department of Mechanical Engineering, Babol Noshirvani University of Technology, Babol, Islamic Republic of Iran
A. M. Alinia & M. Sheikholeslami
Renewable energy systems and nanofluid applications in heat transfer Laboratory, Babol Noshirvani University of Technology, Babol, Iran
A. M. Alinia & M. Sheikholeslami
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“A.M.A. and M.S. conducted the simulations and prepared the output figures. A.M.A. also prepared the validation for the numerical section, while M.S. wrote the results and conclusion sections of the manuscript. Both authors contributed to revising and editing the manuscript.
Correspondence to A. M. Alinia or M. Sheikholeslami.
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Alinia, A.M., Sheikholeslami, M. Development of a new solar system integrating photovoltaic and thermoelectric modules with paraffin-based nanomaterials. Sci Rep 15, 1336 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-85161-5
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