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npj Clean Energy volume 2, Article number: 8 (2026) Cite this article
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Photovoltaic solar energy represents a highly promising solution for Morocco, benefiting from abundant and consistent sunlight, despite persistent challenges such as land scarcity and high temperatures that affect efficiency. Installing solar photovoltaics on existing dams offers an attractive and sustainable alternative, as they enhance overall renewable energy production, reduce evaporation, and benefit from existing electrical infrastructure. This approach contributes to the optimization of water and energy resources. This paper evaluates the techno-economic feasibility of floating photovoltaic (FPV) systems on 58 Moroccan dams, considering water surface availability, evaporation rates, potential energy production, panel tilt angles, associated costs, and various floating platform configurations. This national-scale evaluation provides new insights into FPV deployment, offering essential data to support Morocco’s renewable energy transition. The results indicate that the total surface area of the monitored dams is approximately 433 square kilometers, with an estimated annual water loss of around 909.458 million cubic meters due to evaporation. The analysis of panel tilt angles suggests that 31° may be optimal for energy production, while lower angles, such as 11°, also remain viable, offering a better balance between energy generation and water conservation. It was concluded that covering just 1% of the total surface area of all monitored dams could make a substantial contribution to Morocco’s energy needs, providing a rapid return on investment.
The energy sector in Morocco is a key priority in the context of promoting sustainable development and achieving national energy sovereignty. The country has been making vigorous efforts to accelerate the transition to renewable energy, aiming to reduce dependence on traditional energy sources and achieve the goals of the national energy strategy. In this context, the announcement of the ambitious target of reaching 52% renewable energy in the national energy mix by 2030 reflects the country’s determination to move towards a clean and sustainable energy future (Fig. 1)¹. Among the innovative solutions that Morocco is increasingly focusing on, floating solar energy systems stand out as one of the most modern technologies in the field of renewable energy.
This figure illustrates the energy generation composition in Morocco for the years 2015, 2020, and 2030, showing the shift towards renewable energy sources (RES). The pie charts highlight the increasing share of solar, wind, and hydropower energy, from 34% of renewable energy in 2015, reaching 42% in 2020, and projected at 52% by 2030. The graphs also emphasize the significant role that wind and solar energy are expected to play in Morocco’s energy mix, moving towards a more sustainable energy system.
The growing reliance on solar energy in Morocco occurs amid challenging environmental conditions, such as drought and harsh climates, which negatively affect water resources. Dams are a strategic infrastructure and an essential source of water in the country. Furthermore, Morocco has developed a robust water infrastructure, comprising around 152 large dams with a total capacity of 19.9 billion m³ in 2023, according to the Ministry of Equipment and Water. Despite their importance for water supply and irrigation, these dams face increasing evaporation due to rising temperatures and declining rainfall². This highlights the relevance of researching FPV systems, which offer an innovative solution to simultaneously address Morocco’s energy and water challenges.
The main advantage of FPV systems is that they do not require agricultural or usable land, making them an ideal choice, especially in densely populated areas or areas where land use is highly competitive³. This system involves installing floating solar panels on large water bodies, such as dams and lakes, enabling the generation of clean electricity without impacting terrestrial ecosystems⁴. Additionally, FPV systems offer higher efficiency compared to ground-based PV (GPV) systems due to the cooling effect provided by the water on the solar panels. Studies by El Hammoumi et al. (2021)^5,6 Skoplaki and Palyvos (2009)⁷, Rahman et al. (2015)⁸ and Liu et al. (2017)⁹ have demonstrated that the production efficiency of FPV systems can be up to 2% higher than that of GPV systems, which enhances energy production and improves the profitability of these floating solar systems. A recent study indicates that installing FPV systems on 15% of the area of four major dams in the Sebou basin could lead to an additional 1270 GWh of electricity produced annually and save up to 11.93 million cubic meters of water annually, along with achieving positive economic returns^10,11.
Furthermore, FPV systems contribute to water conservation by reducing evaporation from large water bodies on which they are installed. Several studies have estimated the extent of water loss due to evaporation, with many focusing on evaluating the reduction in evaporation in basins covered by FPV systems. For example, research conducted in Spain found that covering an irrigation reservoir with FPV panels led to a 25% reduction in water capacity^12,13 Similarly, a large-scale nine-month experiment demonstrated the effectiveness of using floating solar panels to reduce evaporation from open water bodies in the studied semi-arid region. An average evaporation reduction of 60% was observed over the entire period, with higher rates observed during specific periods. The tilt angle of the panels had an impact on the evaporation rate; generally, the flatter the panel, the less evaporation was observed. This is explained by the reduction in the exposure of water to solar radiation. However, this conclusion could not be statistically verified¹⁴. Another study, conducted on the Vaigai Reservoir in India, showed that covering 30% of the surface with FPV panels not only generated 1.9 GWh of energy but also resulted in a significant water saving of 42,731.56 m³ annually. This study highlights the potential of FPV systems to combat water loss due to evaporation, particularly in regions where water resources are limited^15,16.
Research such as that conducted by Rosa-Clot et al. (2017)¹⁷, Taboada et al. (2017)¹⁸, and Redon Santafe et al. (2014)¹² has shown that FPV systems can significantly reduce water evaporation, which is especially beneficial in dry climates where water is a limited resource. In some cases, studies have shown that FPV systems can save up to 90% of the water lost due to evaporation. Furthermore, research in Jordan confirms these findings, indicating that the amount of water saved corresponds to the coverage of FPV systems. However, it should be noted that both experiments conducted in Jordan used Class A coverage, which may not fully represent the true effect of FPV systems on large water basins, especially considering the typically low coverage of FPV panels¹⁹.
The adoption of FPV systems is rapidly expanding across the globe, demonstrating their considerable potential to meet growing energy needs while preserving the environment. These innovative facilities can now be found in many countries, including the United States, Spain, Italy, China, Singapore, and South Korea²⁰. In January 2022, China achieved a major milestone in the field of solar energy by inaugurating the world’s largest floating solar power plants. This plant has an impressive capacity of 320 MW, and is located in Lake Chengxi, Anhui Province. The scale of this installation was remarkable, with more than 140,000 solar panels covering an area of 150 ha. This large solar power plant is expected to produce approximately 550 million kWh of electricity annually. This colossal production is equivalent to the annual consumption of approximately 180,000 Chinese homes, highlighting the immense potential of floating solar energy to provide clean and sustainable electricity on a large scale²¹.
In Singapore, the Sembcorp floating solar power plant located in the Tengeh Reservoir embodies energy innovation. With a capacity of 60 MW, it is equipped with 122,000 solar panels spread across 45 ha, equivalent to 63 football fields. Developed by Sembcorp Industries, this facility was inaugurated in 2021, which marked a significant milestone in Singapore’s transition to more sustainable energy sources.
The United States is positioning itself as a leader in the floating solar sector, benefiting from favorable conditions across several states. With its generous sunshine and vast expanses of water, the country offers considerable potential for this emerging technology²². Innovative projects are underway in California, such as the 5 MW floating solar power plant on Lake Perris and the SPARC project on the Castaic Reservoir. Nevada is also exploring this path with the 1.5 MW SolarBridge project on the Boulder Reservoir, which combines floating solar with battery energy storage. Arizona has already adopted this technology successfully, exemplified by the installation of a 1 MW power plant on Lake Roosevelt, even in arid regions. Lake Mead, the largest man-made lake in the U.S., presents an even more significant opportunity for floating solar energy, with pilot projects underway to fully exploit this potential.
José María de Toro Floating Solar Park, also known as the Zorgon Floating Solar Park, is an outstanding example of the successful application of floating solar power in Spain. Located in the José María de Toro Reservoir, this project illustrates the viability and efficiency of large-scale floating solar. Inaugurated in 2020, this park has a capacity of 27 MW and is, powered by 80,000 solar panels installed in an area of 10 ha. This achievement is a testament to Spain’s commitment to renewable energy and provides an inspiring example of other similar initiatives worldwide²³.
Italy is emerging as a leading player in the field of floating solar, capitalizing on its sunny climate and abundant water resources. With its recognized expertise in renewable energy, the country is actively exploring the potential of this technology to meet its energy needs while preserving its environment. Innovative projects are emerging across Italy, particularly in lakes and reservoirs, highlighting the advantages of floating solar technology. Notable examples include a 2.5 MW FPV installation on Lake Idro, a 1.7 MW floating solar power plant on the Bricciano reservoir, and another 1 MW installation on Lake Santa Giustina in Sardinia. These achievements demonstrate Italy’s commitment to sustainable energy transition and reinforce its emerging role as a leader in floating solar power in Europe²⁴.
South Korea is investing in floating solar energy to diversify its energy supply and to reduce its dependence on fossil fuels. FPV projects are emerging in artificial reservoirs and lakes, highlighting the potential of this technology for energy transition²⁵. Notably, the 5.1 MW floating solar power plant in the Hapcheon Reservoir, inaugurated in 2019, plays a significant role in the production of clean energy in the region. Similarly, Soyang Lake hosts a 1 MW FPV systems facility that efficiently combines renewable energy production and water conservation. In addition, an ambitious 10 MW project is under development in the Gimcheon Reservoir, demonstrating South Korea’s growing commitment to floating solar.
In Morocco, the construction of FPV systems marks a significant advancement in the renewable energy sector and reflects the country’s commitment to addressing both energy and water challenges. Notable initiatives include the first FPV plant in Africa, installed in Sidi Slimane with a capacity of 360 kW, and a 13 MW FPV project on the Oued Rmel dam in Tangier, developed in collaboration with the Ministry of Energy Transition and Sustainable Development. The Tangier project is expected to supply 14% of the energy needs of the Tangier-Med port complex, representing a pioneering step in solar energy exploitation, particularly in space-constrained areas such as ports and industrial zones.
However, few studies have been conducted in Morocco on FPV systems. Existing research includes the first FPV prototype, designed to evaluate the performance of FPV compared to GPV systems⁵, as well as assessments of floating solar potential and water conservation through case studies on four hydroelectric dams¹⁰. Most previous studies have focused on limited regional areas; for instance, the analysis in the Sebou Basin¹⁰ examined only four major dams. In contrast, this paper presents a nationwide assessment covering 58 Moroccan dams. Its originality and main contribution lie in applying established models and techniques on a larger, national scale, providing a more comprehensive evaluation of the potential of FPV systems across the country.
A key challenge in this research was the lack of accessible and updated data on the water surface areas of the 58 dams. To address this issue, a specified approach was employed, combining image processing with cartographic data analysis using tools such as Viking software and the Color Summarizer program. This method is highly scalable, allowing for accurate surface area measurements suitable for a national assessment. Evaporation rates were estimated using the Stephen and Stewart model, which is well suited for monthly applications and requires less data than more complex models. This nationwide assessment has generated valuable new data to support Morocco’s energy and water management strategies. The study encompasses 58 dams distributed across the country, providing a comprehensive overview of the potential for FPV deployment at a national level. The total monitored water surface area of these dams is approximately 433 square kilometers, highlighting the significant available space for FPV installations. The analysis estimates an annual water loss of around 909.46 million cubic meters due to evaporation. Implementing FPV systems on these surfaces could help reduce evaporation, thereby contributing to more sustainable water resource management while simultaneously generating renewable energy.
This study significantly pushes forward previous work by providing a nationwide FPV assessment. Its main aim is to explore the energy and economic feasibility of installing FPV systems on these dams, assessing their technical potential to generate energy, reduce water evaporation, and evaluate the related costs and returns.
The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. Methods section outlines the materials and methods used in this study. It includes several subsections that detail the calculations and methodologies applied, such as evaporation rate calculation, irradiation on a horizontal plane, water surface area calculation, energy output calculation, and overall cost analysis. Results section presents and discusses the key results of the study, which are divided into key focus areas including evaporation, irradiation, surface data, and energy and cost analysis. Discussion section discusses the main findings and analyses of this study, including the effects of tilt angles on energy production and water evaporation, hydrological risks, FPV deployment challenges, platform safety, and future research directions, followed by a conclusion summarizing the key insights.
This section presents the results of the modeling of energy production potential, evaporation rates, and cost analysis for FPV systems on Moroccan dams. It is important to note that the figures presented are estimates based on theoretical models and aggregated data, and the study highlights a crucial need for validation by real data from operational FPV installations, along with a more detailed sensitivity analysis to reinforce the financial conclusions.
The evaporation data indicate a significant water loss from Moroccan dams, with a total annual loss estimated at 909.46 million cubic meters. This total monthly evaporated volume for Morocco is illustrated in Fig. 2. Water loss is most pronounced during the summer months, peaking at 108.76 ×10⁶m³ in July, followed by August and September. Figure 3 further details this by presenting the evaporation rates per month across Morocco. The study utilized the Stephen and Stewart model to evaluate these evaporation rates, a choice driven by its suitability for monthly applications and limited data availability.
The data shows that water loss peaks during the summer, specifically in July at 108.76 ×10⁶ m³, followed by August and September.
These rates were evaluated using the Stephen and Stewart model, chosen for its suitability for monthly applications and an average absolute error of 1.21 mm/day.
Table 1 ranks the five Moroccan dams with the highest annual evaporation values. Complementing this, Fig. 4 illustrates the volume of evaporated water for the top 18 dams in Morocco, a broader subset that includes those listed in Table 1.
This broader subset highlights the reservoirs with the most significant water loss, dominated by the Al Wahda dam. Note: For technical accuracy, the values represent volumes in 10³ m³ (thousands of cubic meters), resulting in a total annual evaporation magnitude of approximately 909 ×10⁶ m³ across all monitored dams.
The Al Wahda dam clearly dominates this ranking, with an annual evaporation of 183.88 ×10⁶ m³. This high evaporation from Al Wahda can be attributed to several factors, including its large reservoir surface area, arid local climatic conditions, and the presence of aquatic vegetation that promotes evapotranspiration. A comprehensive overview of the total yearlyevaporated volume from each of the 58 dams studied is provided in Fig. 5, offering a complete picture of individual dam contributions to water loss.
This provides a comprehensive overview of the individual contributions of all 58 studied dams to the total annual water loss of roughly 909.46 million cubic meters.
The Al Massira and Oued El Makhazine dams occupy the second and third positions respectively, with annual evaporation values of 131.35 ×10⁶ m³ and 76.86 ×10⁶ m³. Although these values are significant, they are lower than that of the Al Wahda dam, suggesting the presence of mitigating factors for evaporation in these cases.
The S.M. Ben Abdeellah and Idriss 1er dams show significantly lower annual evaporation compared to others in Table 1, with respective values of 47.10 m³ and 59.33 ×10⁶ m³. These notable differences may be attributed to specific characteristics of these dams, such as reservoir depth, water level management, or local microclimatic conditions.
Previous research in other regions has demonstrated the potential of FPV for water conservation:
• In Spain, research carried out on a Floating Photovoltaic Cover System (FPCS) installed on an irrigation tank showed that the total coverage of the tank allowed an annual water saving of 5000 m³. This saving represents 25% of the reservoir’s storage capacity, confirming the effectiveness of this technology in improving water balances in arid and semi-arid areas¹².
• A study conducted in a semi-arid region demonstrated the effectiveness of floating solar panels in reducing evaporation, with an average decrease of 60% over a nine-month period¹⁴.
• A study in Jordan showed that the use of FPV panels on water bodies could lead to a significant reduction in evaporation. Experimental results demonstrated that covering 30% of the water surface with floating panels saved 31.2% of water, while a 50% coverage led to a 54.5% water savings compared to an uncovered water body. These results highlight the potential of FPV systems to reduce water losses due to evaporation, offering a promising solution for water management in semi-arid regions¹⁹.
Our estimates for Moroccan dams, with nearly one million cubic meters lost annually, highlight a substantial water conservation potential, aligned with the benefits observed in these international studies. However, a direct quantification of water savings resulting specifically from different FPV coverage rates for Moroccan dams is not detailed here.
Morocco possesses substantial solar potential, benefiting from generous sunlight averaging 3000 hours per year and an estimated average daily solar radiation intensity of approximately 5.80 kWh/m²/day. This makes photovoltaic solar energy a sustainable and promising solution for the country.
An overview of the distribution of solar radiation across Morocco is a valuable tool for identifying areas with high solar potential, which can inform the initial selection of potential sites for solar energy installations. It is crucial, however, to emphasize that this overview requires more detailed site-level assessments for an accurate and rigorous estimate.
We used monthly horizontal irradiation data from 2020 from the PVgis platform for nine sampled dams. It is important to note that PVgis does not distinguish between day and night hours for temperature data, which may have limited the granularity of our subsequent efficiency estimation.
The monthly declination angle (δ) plays a crucial role in determining the optimal tilt angle of solar panels, as it represents the angular position of the sun relative to the equator throughout the year. Table 2 provides monthly declination angles for Fès-Meknès, Morocco, offering valuable insights into the sun’s position throughout the year. As observed from Table 2, the declination angle varies considerably throughout the year, ranging from a maximum of 23.086° in June to a minimum of −23.050° in December. This variation is primarily due to the Earth’s tilt axis and its orbit around the sun. Our analyses show that annual solar production increases until it reaches an optimal tilt angle of 31 degrees, with an overall annual global radiation on a horizontal surface of 2361.16 kWh/m²/year, as depicted in Fig. 6.
Analysis indicates that annual global radiation on a horizontal surface is 2361.16 kWh/m²/year, with production increasing until an optimal tilt angle of 31° is reached.
Figure 7 visually represents the variation of solar elevation angles over the 12 months for the 9 samples. This information is useful for understanding the monthly distribution of solar radiation and for assessing the performance of solar panels throughout the year. Figure 8 illustrates the monthly evolution of radiation on the plane for different tilts. It demonstrates how the tilt angle significantly impacts the amount of solar radiation received by the panels, underscoring the importance of selecting the optimal tilt angle to maximize energy production. However, for reasons of structural stability and cost-effectiveness, an inclination of 11 degrees was selected for the energy production calculations.
This visualization tracks solar elevation variations for representative dams (including Al Wahda and Al Massira).
This demonstrates how tilt angles significantly impact monthly energy collection.
The analysis of the surface area of the dams confirms the dominance of the five largest dams, as shown in Fig. 9. The total area of the 58 Moroccan dams monitored amounts to about 433 square kilometers. These surface results are strongly correlated with calculated evaporation results, reaffirming the importance of these five largest dams in the management of water and energy resources. The accurate calculation of these areas was made necessary by the lack of accessible and up-to-date data on the water bodies of the 58 dams.
The total monitored surface area is approximately 433 km², determined through processing cartographic images.
The results of this study indicate that covering approximately 40% of Morocco’s dam surfaces with FPV systems could generate sufficient energy to meet the country’s total electricity demand, which reached a total production of 42.38 TWh in 2023 according to the Ministry of Energy. This finding is illustrated in Fig. 10, which highlights the point at which energy production reaches 100% of national demand. The figure also compares the effects of different panel inclinations, specifically 11 degrees and 21 degrees, on energy generation. The comparison of tilt angles indicates that the difference in energy output between 11° and 21° is minimal, suggesting that lower tilt angles can be adopted without significantly affecting energy production while offering advantages in terms of stability and cost. Additionally, proximity to water enhances the cooling of PV panels, reducing their operating temperature and thereby improving overall efficiency.
Projections suggest that covering 40% of the dam surfaces could meet Morocco’s total energy demand.
Even with a low coverage rate, energy production from FPV systems remains considerable. With only 1% coverage, FPV installations could produce a significant amount of electricity. This is illustrated in Fig. 11, which shows the estimated annual production (in GWh) for 13 studied dams, highlighting the substantial contribution of even small-scale installations. To examine the versatility and impact of FPV systems across different generation targets, we also analyzed the coverage required for specific energy outputs. For instance, Fig. 12 presents the estimated coverage needed across at least 45 dams to collectively produce 100 MWh of energy annually. Similarly, Fig. 13 illustrates the percentage of coverage required for 11 dams to generate 1 GWh of energy per year. Together, these results underscore the efficiency and scalability of FPV systems as a robust renewable energy solution. They demonstrate that even modest coverage can significantly impact national electricity generation while meeting diverse energy targets.
Even at 1% coverage, production levels reach a satisfactory level, contributing significantly to the national grid.
This analysis highlights the feasibility of generating substantial power with minimal surface utilization.
This focuses on high-potential large-area dams such as Al Wahda, Al Massira, and Oued Al Makhazin.
The production analysis also showed a direct link between the efficiency of the solar panels, which are chosen primarily as polycrystalline cells with an efficiency of 16% for reasons of profitability and suitability for the large surfaces of the tanks, and the energy produced. Large-area dams, such as Al Wahda, Almassira, and Oued Al Makhazin, have a particularly high potential for energy production due to their favorable conditions.
Regarding technical optimization, the study examined the effect of the tilt angle of the panels, finding that angles ranging from 11° to 31° gave comparable irradiation results. Figure 11 details the variation of the irradiation on the plane as a function of these angles. However, while the angle of inclination has a significant impact on irradiation, its effect on annual energy production is relatively negligible for small percentages of coverage (such as 1% of the total dam area). Conversely, for greater surface coverage (e.g., 40% of the dam area), the angle of inclination becomes a crucial factor in optimizing energy production and improving overall energy efficiency.
In terms of cost analysis, Fig. 14 provides a comparative analysis of the costs of the two floating technologies C&T and Solaris. The analysis showed that the Solaris system has the best cost-effectiveness in terms of total cost of capital, making it more suitable for large-scale FPV projects.
This economic trend is driven by the cooling effect of the water, which can enhance FPV production efficiency by up to 2% compared to ground-mounted systems.
The results from Morocco’s 58 dams show that covering 40% of the total surface area could meet 100% of the country’s energy demand. This reflects a considerable potential for energy production. It highlights Morocco’s clear advantage regarding available surface area for FPV installations.
As shown in Table 3, when we compare these projections with FPV projects around the world, Morocco’s potential looks very competitive. For example, a project in Greece has a capacity of 3861 MW and covers 10% of the area, producing about 5212.35 GWh annually. This shows significant success in deploying FPV on a large scale. Similarly, China’s Lake Chengxi project has a capacity of 320 MW and covers 1.5 km² (150 ha), generating 550 GWh annually. This indicates that FPV can work well even in smaller installations. In contrast, Singapore’s Tengeh Reservoir and Spain’s José María de Toro projects, while smaller in size, still make important contributions to their energy mixes, proving that FPV can succeed at different scales.
FPV systems in Morocco could easily match or exceed the size of some of the biggest FPV projects worldwide. The vast surface area of 58 dams gives Morocco a clear advantage, providing great potential for renewable energy generation and helping the country meet its energy transition goals. In summary, the data suggests that Morocco’s FPV potential, backed by its large surface area and suitable conditions for floating solar technology, could play a vital role in meeting national energy needs and supporting global renewable energy targets.
The comparative cost analysis revealed that the Solaris Synergy structure offers the best economic ratio in terms of total capital cost compared to the Ciel & Terre technology. Initial cost components include PV module costs adjusted to 0.22 USD/Wp and Engineering, Procurement, and Construction (EPC) costs at 0.31 USD/Wp.
The financial projections suggest a Return on Investment (ROI) of less than 10 years. However, these projections must be interpreted with caution. Data regarding the maintenance and monitoring costs of FPV systems are poorly documented in current literature. Consequently, maintenance costs were estimated as a lump sum of approximately 10% of the capital expenditures over the lifespan of the panels. This lump-sum estimate makes the ROI projections speculative and insufficiently substantiated.
To enhance the credibility of our financial conclusions and move beyond simplified assumptions, we have conducted a robust sensitivity analysis. This analysis systematically tests the impact of variations (e.g., ±10%) on the most critical parameters that influence the overall profitability of the project:
Initial investment costs: Testing fluctuations in the costs of components such as PV Modules, the Balance of Plant (BOP), and EPC.
Operation and maintenance (O&M) costs: Varying the generalized O&M estimate, which is currently 10% of capital expenditures, due to its inherent uncertainty.
Electricity selling price: Testing fluctuations in the revenue stream, which significantly impacts long-term profitability.
Technical parameters: Varying the efficiency (η) and the annual sum of solar irradiation (Y_irr), factoring in the degradation rate of photovoltaic modules and the potential cooling effect.
Macroeconomic factors: Including the influence of inflation and interest rates, which can alter the overall profitability of long-term investments.
The sensitivity analysis confirms that while the technical potential is robust, as demonstrated by the negligible effect of minor tilt changes and the efficiency gains from cooling, the financial profitability is highly sensitive to the O&M costs and the electricity selling price. Fluctuations in O&M costs, due to the poor documentation in the literature, are identified as the largest driver of uncertainty in the ROI model.
This analysis validates the conclusion that cost considerations must be tailored to each case to achieve more accurate and reliable results. The inclusion of this robust sensitivity analysis ensures that the financial projections are presented with the necessary rigor, affirming that asserting a rapid ROI based solely on simplified assumptions is insufficient.
The tilt angle of FPV panels plays a crucial role in both maximizing energy production and reducing water evaporation. The cooling effect of water is one of the key advantages of FPV systems, as it significantly improves panel efficiency, reducing heat-induced performance losses commonly observed in traditional land-based solar systems.
In our study, we observed that the tilt angle significantly affects irradiation and energy production. The optimal tilt angle for FPV panels varies depending on the geographical location and the specific characteristics of the site. For Morocco, we found that tilt angles ranging from 11° to 31° yielded comparable irradiation values (see Fig. 11), with an 11° tilt angle being the most cost-effective while still providing substantial energy output. This angle maximizes solar exposure, particularly in regions with high solar radiation throughout the year.
For larger-scale installations, such as 40% coverage, the tilt angle becomes more critical in optimizing solar energy capture. Panels tilted at optimal angles maximize the amount of solar radiation received, leading to increased energy output. In contrast, at smaller coverage (e.g., 1% of the surface area), the effect of tilt is negligible, as the total energy produced is too small to be significantly affected by slight variations in the angle of the panels.
In addition to its effect on energy production, the tilt angle of FPV panels also influences the cooling effect on the water beneath the panels, which reduces water evaporation. The cooling effect is particularly important in regions where water scarcity is a major concern. By shading the water surface, FPV systems help to maintain lower water temperatures, reducing the evaporation rate. As the tilt angle increases, the shading effect on the water surface decreases, allowing more solar radiation to reach the water, which may increase the evaporation rate.
Our study shows that an optimal tilt angle, such as 11°, achieves a balance between energy production and water conservation. While higher tilt angles may slightly increase energy yield, they reduce the shading effect on water and may increase evaporation. In contrast, lower tilt angles enhance shading and help limit water loss. Additionally, proximity to water improves PV efficiency through natural cooling, making FPV systems particularly suitable for water-scarce regions.
This study, which primarily focused on surface potential and evaporation rates, acknowledges a significant gap in hydrological design data. Specifically:
Hydrological Risks: An in-depth analysis of hydrological risks, including depth variations and drought conditions, is imperative for a comprehensive evaluation of FPV systems.
Depth Data: The study could not document the average and minimum depths of the studied dams. This data would be essential for understanding the impact of water level fluctuations on the stability and performance of FPV systems.
Drought Impact: Additionally, the study did not model the impact of prolonged droughts (a known challenge in Morocco) on the performance and safety of FPV systems. Such an analysis is critical to ensure that anchoring systems are designed to withstand significant fluctuations in water levels, ensuring the long-term resilience of the FPV installations.
These data are crucial for designing robust anchoring systems and ensuring the safety and performance of FPV installations, especially when dealing with hydrological risks such as droughts and fluctuations in water levels.
FPV systems, like other solar technologies, face challenges with inconsistent energy output, especially due to cloud cover and seasonal changes in solar energy availability. In Morocco, some regions have high cloud coverage during certain seasons, leading to notable variations in energy output. To address this issue, energy storage options like pumped hydro storage and green hydrogen are essential for stabilizing energy supply. Pumped hydro storage allows for storing excess energy generated during peak sunlight hours, which can then be released during periods of low sunlight, ensuring a steady energy supply. Green hydrogen offers a novel way to store surplus energy as hydrogen, which can be used in various sectors, including industry and transportation.
Moreover, integrating smart grid technologies is vital for managing these variations and maintaining grid stability. Smart grids allow for real-time energy management and demand-response systems, enabling more efficient energy distribution and balancing supply with demand. These systems will be key to effectively integrating FPV systems into Morocco’s national grid and ensuring the long-term sustainability of renewable energy sources.
In the event of a platform failure, safety protocols are in place to ensure the stability of the FPV system. These protocols include the use of redundant systems that allow for emergency shutdowns in case of unexpected events. Additionally, the floating platforms comply with international safety standards such as IEC, DNV, and ISO, ensuring that they can withstand harsh weather conditions and prevent large-scale disruptions. This guarantees that the FPV systems are both safe and resilient, capable of operating under challenging environmental conditions.
In terms of future perspectives and research, an in-depth assessment is needed to measure the gains in water resources resulting from FPV installations, considering different coverage configurations. It is also essential to address gaps in data regarding the efficiency of Moroccan dams to refine the understanding of their energy potential. Further research could also validate the Stephen and Stewart evaporation model used with in situ data specific to Moroccan dams, or explore more sophisticated models should additional data become available. Finally, dedicated studies on the optimal integration of FPV systems with storage solutions, such as green hydrogen and pumped storage, are necessary to maximize their contribution to Morocco’s energy security and energy transition.
In conclusion, this study delved into various aspects of FPV systems and revealed their substantial potential for power generation and water conservation in Morocco. Our findings highlight possible solutions to the storage challenge, such as pumped hydro-storage systems and promising green hydrogen technology. Addressing Morocco’s significant evaporation losses, this study quantifies nearly 1 billion (909.4 × 10⁶) cubic meters lost annually due to evaporation. The total water surface of the monitored dams in Morocco is approximately 433 km², with the optimal tilt angle for the floating platforms ranging from 11° to 21°, based on the country’s geographical location.
In terms of energy generation, covering only 40% of the dams could meet the entire energy demand, although this may change depending on varying storage system efficiencies. The cost per kWh significantly decreased when considering the additional efficiency from the cooling effect of water. Despite the substantial upfront investment, the study suggests a return on investment of less than 10 years, factoring in maintenance costs. However, cost considerations should be tailored to each specific case to obtain precise and accurate results.
Although this study explored various aspects of FPV systems, it acknowledges its non-exhaustive nature and emphasizes the need for continued research to fully understand the impact of FPV systems on Morocco’s energy and water management strategies. For Morocco to fully leverage the massive FPV potential and address the intermittency inherent in solar power production, large-scale storage solutions will be crucial. The study identifies pumped storage systems (potentially linked to existing dam infrastructures) and green hydrogen technology as pathways to address this storage challenge. It is important to emphasize that this study lays the groundwork for specific research into these solutions, which were not the primary focus of this study.
This study adopted a rigorous and multi-layered methodology to assess the potential of FPV systems on Moroccan dams. While drawing upon established models and techniques, the originality and major contribution of this research lie in the exhaustive application and contextualization of these approaches to the scale of Morocco’s 58 dams. This approach enabled the generation of unprecedented data and analyses, crucial for the country’s energy and water planning.
The key steps of the methodology include estimating evaporation rates, calculating solar irradiation, precisely determining the surface area of the dam water bodies, evaluating electrical energy production, and conducting a detailed cost analysis.
The FPV system consists of several key components, including solar panels, inverters, and transformers, as shown in Fig. 15. The solar panels are mounted on floating platforms that rest on the surface of the dams. Underwater cabling connects the floating panels to the onshore components, such as inverters and transformers, which convert the generated direct current into alternating current suitable for integration into the electrical grid. Installing the inverters and transformers onshore minimizes the risk of electrical faults due to water exposure, simplifies maintenance, and reduces system complexity compared to placing these components on floating platforms. This configuration adheres to industry standards for safety and operational efficiency, ensuring reliable performance in aquatic environments.
This diagram illustrates the key components and configuration of the FPV system.
Two FPV structural models, shown in Fig. 16, were selected for this study based on their cost-effectiveness, adaptability to Moroccan dam conditions, and compliance with international standards. The first model, developed by Ciel & Terre (C&T), was chosen for its proven performance in large-scale installations and its ability to adapt to various water depths and climatic conditions. The second model, developed by Solaris Synergy, was selected for its optimized design, which offers a favorable balance between capital cost and system performance. Both models comply with international standards such as IEC, DNV, and ISO, ensuring they meet the required safety, structural integrity, and performance criteria for long-term operation in harsh environmental conditions.
a Ciel & Terre (C&T) technology³⁶ and (b) Solaris Synergy technology³⁷. Solaris was found to have the best economic ratio for total capital cost.
To estimate evaporation rates, available data sources and various existing models were analyzed. The Stephen and Stewart model, represented by Eq. (1), was specifically applied²⁶. This model was chosen due to its suitability for monthly applications and, critically, due to limited data availability for more complex models²⁷. It is recognized for its average absolute error of 1.21 mm/day on small reservoirs.
Where:
e: Evaporation (mm/day)
Q_s: Solar radiation (W/m²)
T_a: Average Air Temperature (°F)
For data acquisition, temperature information was obtained from the PVGIS platform. For this study, monthly average temperatures were utilized to maintain methodological consistency with the Stephen and Stewart model, which is specifically optimized for monthly applications. Samples were collected from nine representative dams (ALWAHDA, AL MASSIRA, ABDELMOUMENE, MANSOUR DAHBI, NEUF AVRIL, NAKHLA, SMIR, HASSAN 2, MOULAY YOUSSEF) with total average temperatures ranging from 16 °C to 21 °C²⁸. Furthermore, the average daily value of solar radiation intensity in Morocco was estimated at approximately 5.80 kWh/m²/day. This value was converted into power by dividing it by the daylight hours of each month²⁹. This systematic application of the model to all Moroccan dams constitutes an advance for quantifying water losses specific to the national context, essential for evaluating the impact of FPV systems on water resource conservation in Morocco.
For irradiation data, we accessed monthly horizontal irradiance on a horizontal plane for the year 2020 from the PVGIS website. We used data from the nine previously mentioned dams along with associated temperature readings. From the calculated horizontal irradiance, we derived the inclined plane irradiance using Eq. (2):
Where:
I_module: The irradiation on the inclined surface (kWh/m²).
I_horizon: The horizontal irradiation (kWh/m²) on a flat surface.
α : The solar zenith angle, which represents the angle between the sun and the vertical. It depends on the latitude, time of year, and time of day.
β : The tilt angle of the solar panels (degrees).
To calculate the solar zenith angle (α), we used the following formula:
Where:
ϕ is the latitude of the location (in degrees),
δ is the declination angle, which is calculated using the formula:
Where:
d is the day of the year (ranging from 1 to 365).
For the choice of days of the months, we used the average days of each month suggested by Klein, as shown in Table 4³⁰.
Subsequently, an annual average of the inclined plane irradiation was obtained for each inclination studied by averaging the monthly values. These calculations allowed for the customization of irradiation data for the Moroccan geographical context, ensuring precise results for optimizing the tilt angle of floating solar panels.
To estimate the water surface areas of the 58 dams in Morocco, a specific method based on color image processing was employed due to the lack of up-to-date official data. Initially, cartographic images of the dams were collected using Viking software and Bing Aerial, with Viking software enabling an accurate representation of the actual water surface areas. A simple image processing technique was then applied to delimit the area outside the dam, minimizing potential errors in the estimation. The Color Summarizer program, known for its high precision, was used to calculate the exact percentage of water surface in each dam³¹. Based on the resolution of the satellite imagery and the accuracy of the color classification algorithm, the margin of error for this method is approximately ±5%.
To ensure the accuracy of the surface area estimates, the results were verified by comparing them with historical official dam data and documents from the Moroccan Ministry of Equipment and Water. This verification confirmed that the estimated water surface areas are generally reliable. However, it should be noted that these results are relatively constrained by recent drought conditions in Morocco, which have led to reduced water levels in many dams over the past few years. These estimates provide a sound basis for the subsequent analysis of FPV system feasibility, while acknowledging the temporal variability in water availability.
Figure 17 illustrates the application of this methodology using the Al Mansour Eddahbi Dam as a representative example.
a Step 1: Initial image surface of 174.54 km². b Step 2: Cutting to delimit the dam. c Step 3: Color processing and cluster partitioning using the Color Summarizer program.
The water surface (({S}_{{water}})) was calculated as follows:
Where:
S_water: the water surface area of the reservoir, typically measured in square meters (m²) or square kilometers (km²). This is the area of the water body covered by FPV systems.
S_image: the total surface area of the image or the satellite-derived image of the entire reservoir. This is the total area (including land and water) captured in the image, typically in m² or km².
% of the water color: the percentage of the image that is covered by water, based on color analysis. The color of water in an image can be identified using image processing techniques that classify pixels as water based on their color or spectral properties. This percentage is typically expressed as a percentage (%) and represents how much of the image is covered by water versus land.
The primary outcome of utilizing solar panels is the generation of electrical energy, which is well established. However, in the case of FPV systems, based on previous studies in basins, there is a notable improvement in the panel efficiency, as illustrated in Table 5. Furthermore, the quantitative results of electrical energy production are influenced by various factors (inclination angle, location, panel type, temperature, etc.), with irradiation being a direct determinant. Drawing from previous research³², the average annual electrical energy production from FPV implementation, under approximate conditions and utilizing less than 2% of the surface area of large dams in Morocco, will reach a satisfactory level of 2064.6 GWh.
This study examines the annual electricity production of different types of crystalline solar panels (Table 6) at varying inclination angles. The following model was employed to estimate the corresponding annual electricity production (6):
Where:
E_FPV is the annual electricity production (MWh/year).
A_FPV is the surface area covered by FPV panels (m²).
PR is the system performance ratio (%).
η is the solar panel efficiency (%).
Y_irr is the annual sum of solar irradiation energy at a given inclination angle, averaged for the reservoir surface (kWh/m²).
For reasons of cost-effectiveness and suitability for large reservoir areas, polycrystalline cells with an efficiency of 16% were prioritized.
Cost-benefit analysis is crucial for evaluating PV systems from an investment perspective. For FPV installations, the investment cost encompasses the price of PV modules and their accessories, the cost of the supporting structure, and maintenance expenses (including installation). In this study, the assessment approach is based on the average lifespan of the panels, adjusted for the period required to recover initial stable losses and maintenance costs. The choice of structure and solar panel technology significantly influences the total initial investment.
The costs of solar equipment were determined based on the work of Wang and Barnett³³. PV module costs were adjusted to 0.22 USD/Wp. The “balance of plant” (BOP) costs, including transformers, wiring, switching and control equipment, protective equipment, etc., are presented in Table 7. In this study, two main FPV structures: Ciel & Terre and Solaris Synergy (see Fig. 16), are compared, as shown in Table 8. Differences in manufacturing and logistical costs for the floaters are observed between the two structure concepts, with Solaris Synergy generally being less complex and potentially easier to manufacture. The maintenance and monitoring costs of FPV systems, although poorly documented in current literature, were estimated at approximately 10% of the capital expenditures over the lifespan of the panels³⁴.
The datasets generated and analyzed during the current study are not publicly available because they consist of strategic technical estimations for 58 national dams derived from satellite imagery and theoretical modeling, which require further validation by real operational data. They are, however, available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. The code used for the analysis in this study is not publicly available as it is part of a specific research framework developed for this national assessment; it is available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
The code used for the analysis in this study is not publicly available as it is part of a specific research framework developed for this national assessment; it is available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
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This publication is a result of the research project ‘Innovative Floating Photovoltaic Systems to Combat Climate Change and to Decrease the Cost of PV Energy, ’ funded by the Arab-German Young Academy of Sciences and Humanities (AGYA). AGYA drew on support from the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF; grant no. 01DL20003). The authors remain solely responsible for the content provided in this publication, which does not reflect the positions of the AGYA or any of its funding partners.
Laboratoire des Sciences Appliquées et Technologies Innovantes, ENSA, USMBA, Fès, Maroc
Abdelilah Mouhaya, Abdelaziz El Ghzizal & Saad Motahhir
Engineering Laboratory for Intelligent Technologies and Transformation, EST, Abdelmalek Essaadi University, Tetouan, Morocco
Aboubakr El Hammoumi
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Abdelilah MOUHAYA: Writing – review and editing, Writing – original draft, Visualization, Methodology, Investigation, Conceptualization. Aboubakr EL HAMMOUMI: Writing – review and editing, Writing – original draft, Visualization, Methodology, Investigation, Conceptualization. Abdelaziz EL GHZIZAL: Writing – review and editing, Supervision, Methodology, Investigation, Conceptualization. Saad MOTAHHIR: Writing – review and editing, Supervision, Methodology, Investigation, Funding acquisition, Conceptualization.
Correspondence to Abdelilah Mouhaya.
The authors declare no competing interests.
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Mouhaya, A., El Hammoumi, A., El Ghzizal, A. et al. Techno-economic feasibility analysis of floating photovoltaic systems on 58 Moroccan dams: energy potential, economic viability, and water evaporation. npj Clean Energy 2, 8 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s44406-026-00025-9
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Received: 24 September 2025
Accepted: 23 March 2026
Published: 04 May 2026
Version of record: 04 May 2026
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s44406-026-00025-9
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