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Nature Reviews Clean Technology (2026)
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Floating photovoltaic (FPV) systems have experienced rapid growth since 2015, with over 9.6 GWp installed capacity by 2024, and FPV could become an important source of power generation in land-scarce regions. In this Review, we explore trends in global FPV deployment. The large estimated power-generation potential of FPV, over 22 TWp from 10% of inland water bodies and more than 718 TWp from 10% of offshore areas within exclusive economic zones, indicates FPV’s relevance for meeting energy demands. Capital expenditures have declined to a median of 1.25 USD Wp–1; however, levelized cost of electricity generally remains higher than for land-based PV. Nevertheless, ancillary benefits such as water conservation, synergies with hydropower and aquaculture, and reduced land-use conflict enhance FPV’s economic and environmental value. Challenges include increased operations and maintenance complexity and harsher operational conditions compared with land-based systems. The impacts of FPV systems on their local environment require further investigation, and system developers can face regulatory uncertainty. Offshore FPV and hybrid systems with wind, wave and desalination offer new frontiers but require further technical maturation. Coordinated research, policy support and standardization are needed to enable FPV’s full potential as a scalable, low-carbon energy solution.
Floating photovoltaic (FPV) systems allow for the deployment of PV over large areas with greatly reduced land-use competition compared with convention land-based PV.
The proximity of FPV to water surfaces and exposure to potentially greater wind speed allow for improved cooling of the PV modules, increasing the module efficiency relative to land-based units.
FPV modules are generally installed at tilt angles up to 20° to increase mechanical stability, and therefore reliability, but reduce the total incident sunlight on the PV modules at higher latitudes.
Balance-of-system components for FPV systems require ruggedization in response to the increased moisture exposure and continuous mechanical motion, which are not typical of conditions in conventional land-based PV installations.
Degradation rates of FPV modules over 5 years are similar to those of land-based PV modules; however, durability over the 25-year expected lifetime remains unproven and necessitates longer-duration degradation studies.
Long-term environmental impact studies are needed from a diverse range of water body types to provide the basis for robust regulation, which can increase investor certainty and encourage further deployment.
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This work was supported by the Solar Energy Research Institute of Singapore (SERIS) at the National University of Singapore (NUS). SERIS is supported by NUS, the National Research Foundation Singapore (NRF), the Energy Market Authority of Singapore (EMA) and the Singapore Economic Development Board (EDB). T. Rahman acknowledges support from EPSRC grant EP/X033333/1.
These authors contributed equally: Oktoviano Gandhi, Carlos D. Rodríguez-Gallegos.
Solar Energy Research Institute of Singapore (SERIS), National University of Singapore (NUS), Singapore, Singapore
Oktoviano Gandhi, Lokesh Vinayagam, Huixuan Sun, Jaffar Moideen Yacob Ali, Gokhan Mert Yagli, Fen Lin & Thomas Reindl
RINA Tech Renewables Australia, RINA Consulting, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
Carlos D. Rodríguez-Gallegos
Department of the Built Environment, College of Design and Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
Shi An Ting
School of Electronics and Computer Science, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK
Tasmiat Rahman
Facultad de Ingeniería en Electricidad y Computación (FIEC), Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral (ESPOL), Guayaquil, Ecuador
Manuel S. Alvarez-Alvarado
Qatar Environment and Energy Research Institute (QEERI), Hamad Bin Khalifa University (HBKU), Doha, Qatar
Dhanup Somasekharan Pillai
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O.G. and C.D.R.-G. conceived, organized and contributed equally to the article. O.G., C.D.R.-G., S.A.T., T. Rahman, L.V. and H.S. wrote the article and contributed substantially to discussion of the content. All authors reviewed and/or edited the manuscript before submission.
Correspondence to Oktoviano Gandhi.
O.G., L.V., H.S., J.M.Y.A., G.M.Y., F.L. and T. Reindl work for SERIS, a research institute in Singapore, which also provides consultancy services, including in floating solar. C.D.R.-G. works for RINA, a consultancy company, which also provides services in the floating solar industry. S.A.T., T. Rahman, M.S.A.-A. and D.S.P. declare no competing interests.
Nature Reviews Clean Technology thanks Josefine Selj, Sarah Jordaan and the other, anonymous, reviewer(s) for their contribution to the peer review of this work.
Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
A fracture or splitting in the protective rear layer of a photovoltaic module that can expose internal components to moisture and lead to electrical degradation or failure.
(BOS). This can also include inverter and floats. All the physical components of a photovoltaic system excluding photovoltaic modules, including inverters, mounting structures or floats, wiring, monitoring and electrical equipment.
The unwanted accumulation of microorganisms, algae or other aquatic organisms on surfaces (for example, floating photovolatic floats and anchors), which can increase structural weight and drag or degrade the components of floating and marine energy systems.
The separation of bonded layers within a photovoltaic module (for example, encapsulant from glass or backsheet), often caused by thermal stress or moisture, which leads to optical and performance degradation.
The rate used to convert future cash flows (and energy generation) into present value, reflecting the time value of money and project risk.
(FiTs). A policy mechanism that guarantees renewable energy producers a fixed payment per unit of electricity generated and supplied to the grid over a defined period.
An electrical enclosure attached to a photovoltaic module (typically at the back) that houses the output wiring connections and bypass diodes to protect the module’s circuitry.
(PPA). A long-term (typically 10–25 years) contractual agreement between an electricity generator and a buyer (offtaker) that defines the terms, price and duration for the sale of electricity.
A tradable certificate representing the environmental and other non-power attributes of 1 megawatt hour of electricity generated from renewable sources.
A measure of thermal transmittance or heat loss of a material or structure, typically expressed in W per m²K, where a higher value indicates greater thermal conductivity.
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Gandhi, O., Rodríguez-Gallegos, C.D., Ting, S.A. et al. Design and implementation of floating photovoltaics. Nat. Rev. Clean Technol. (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s44359-026-00171-4
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