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Scientific Reports volume 16, Article number: 18076 (2026) Cite this article
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Integrating photovoltaic (PV) technologies has emerged as a crucial strategy to address Algeria’s energy, economic, and environmental challenges. Urgent solutions are needed with growing energy demand and limited renewable energy adoption. This study investigates the University of Constantine 3 as a case study, exploring how PV systems can enhance energy efficiency and sustainability in urban settings. A comprehensive framework is developed to optimize energy performance in university campus buildings by analyzing energy consumption patterns, solar energy potential, and urban morphology. The multicriteria analysis evaluates the energy generation potential of various campus zones, including rooftops, parking lots, and seating areas. The findings reveal that the proposed PV system can generate an average of 2153 MWh annually, exceeding the campus’s electricity requirements by 32.12%, allowing surplus energy allocation for additional uses. Environmental assessments highlight significant reductions in greenhouse gas emissions, with the system mitigating 1126 tons.CO₂/year. Economically, the PV system is projected to recoup its initial investment within 3.91 years, offering a low exergy-based levelized cost of energy at $0.0063/kWh. This study highlights the influence of site-specific spatial characteristics, including building form, orientation, and density, on solar energy integration, offering valuable insights for sustainable campus planning in Algeria and similar regions.
The escalating global challenges of energy consumption and climate change underscore the urgent need to enhance the energy efficiency of urban environments. Urbanization has profoundly reshaped cities worldwide, significantly impacting energy consumption patterns, environmental sustainability, and urban planning strategies¹. Within this context, the building sector plays a critical role, accounting for over one-third of global energy use and nearly 28% of greenhouse gas emissions, a proportion expected to grow with rapid urbanization, particularly in developing nations². As cities increasingly concentrate on populations and activities, the building sector’s impact highlights its centrality in the global effort to transition toward sustainable and energy-efficient urban environments. Addressing the dual challenge of mitigating energy demands and enhancing sustainability within urban settings has become a critical research focus. The spatial configuration of built environments, encompassing the physical form, structure, and spatial distribution of buildings and open spaces, contributes to determining energy performance at multiple scales³. Parameters such as building density, height, and spatial orientation significantly influence energy efficiency⁴, daylighting, building materials^5,6, thermal comfort, and renewable energy (RE) potential^7,8. Despite advances in modeling and simulation, substantial knowledge gaps persist, particularly in understanding the interplay between urban morphological factors and building energy behavior at neighborhood and city scales^1,9.
In Algeria, a country characterized by a growing urban population and an arid climate, energy challenges are particularly pronounced¹⁰. The building sector significantly contributes to the country’s energy demand, primarily driven by heating, cooling, and lighting requirements¹¹. Algeria’s reliance on fossil fuels, which account for over 90% of its energy mix, highlights the urgent need for energy diversification and efficiency improvements¹². RE, particularly solar energy, holds immense potential, given the country’s high solar irradiance levels. However, its integration into urban energy systems remains limited¹³. The Algerian government has initiated plans to implement PV systems in the country, with an installed capacity of 451 MW by the end of 2023¹⁴. However, most large-scale installed PV systems are located in open space areas¹⁵. This necessitates the development of a suitable framework for PV system implementation in urban areas, utilizing multicriteria analysis for the spatially optimized selection of PV sites¹⁶.
Several studies have investigated the performance of integrating PV systems in urban areas in Algeria^{17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24}. Bouacha et al.¹⁷ analyzed a 3.2 kWp rooftop PV system installed at the University of Sidi Bel Abbes, representing the first grid-connected installation of its kind in Algeria. Laib et al.²⁰ demonstrated that a 1.2 kWp grid-connected PV system can meet 67.6% of the energy demand of a residential house in Souidania, Algeria. By utilizing the grid as virtual storage, the system achieved a positive annual energy balance and reduced reliance on the national grid to 33.4%. Mokhtara et al.²¹ proposed a multidisciplinary approach that integrates GIS-based spatial analysis with HOMER Pro techno-economic modeling to optimize grid-connected rooftop PV systems for educational buildings in Ouargla, Algeria. The study found that approximately 60% of the roof area is suitable for PV installation and recommended a tilt angle of 17° for multi-crystalline panels, resulting in a cost of energy of $0.043/kWh while reducing grid dependence during peak summer demand.
Other studies have evaluated PV system performance under Saharan climatic conditions, including those conducted by Bouraiou et al.²³, Sahouane et al.²⁴, Zaghba et al.¹⁹, and Dahmoun et al.²². Their findings indicate that although the extreme desert environment in Algeria offers high solar irradiance and significant potential for cost-effective energy generation, elevated operating temperatures and dust accumulation substantially reduce PV efficiency. Collectively, these studies highlight that optimal system performance is typically achieved during temperate spring months rather than in summer, and emphasize the importance of regular cleaning to maintain system output, as also noted by Semaoui et al.¹⁸.
Mokhtara et al.²¹ analyzed the performance of PV systems for supplying electricity to educational buildings in arid regions of Algeria, utilizing Ecotect software, ArcGIS, and the HOMER optimizer. The results indicate that 60% of the total roof area is optimally suitable for PV module installation, with a potential annual energy generation of 2333.11 MWh. Lekbir et al.²⁵ investigate the performance of BIPV in the university building Blocks. The proposed systems incorporated both roof-integrated and window-integrated PV technologies. The result shows higher energy, economic, and environmental benefits of the proposed BIPV with an average yearly output of 9.45 MWh, and savings of $370.48/year with a net present value of $981.55, and approximately 5.37 tons of CO₂ equivalent mitigated per year in terms of global warming potential. However, most of the published work in the Algerian context lacks an analysis of the effect of building form on solar energy generation in urban areas. The results obtained in several research studies indicate that various factors can affect solar energy production in urban areas, including building orientation, form, height, and installation location. Similarly, energy consumption is influenced by these same factors.
In this context, numerous studies have explored building morphology’s impact on energy consumption and solar energy production. Xie et al.²⁶ examined the impact of building morphology on energy consumption and solar energy generation potential in university buildings. The findings reveal that variations in building morphology result in differences in intensities in energy use (EUI), solar energy generation (SEGI), and net energy use (NEUI). Xu et al.²⁷ conducted an in-depth analysis of the solar energy potential across seven types of industrial buildings in Wuhan City, China. The findings reveal that while all building types exhibit notable solar energy potential, the roofs consistently outperform the facades, receiving significantly higher solar radiation and offering greater suitability for solar energy applications. Liu et al.²⁸ examined the impact of building form on energy consumption and solar energy generation in Jianhu City, China. The findings demonstrate a strong correlation between building form, energy consumption, and solar energy generation potential. Kaleshwarwar et al.²⁹ investigate the effect of heterogeneous urban built forms on the solar energy potential in India. The results show that building significantly affects solar energy potential. The findings show the challenges of integrating solar energy in urban areas, which are similar to the energy context in Algeria. Therefore, applying the methodologies outlined in the previous studies to Algeria is highly recommended. Concurrently, extensive research and development efforts in this field have focused on addressing the energy needs of various countries, as summarized in Table 1.
The existing literature highlights the growing importance of PV integration in urban environments to enhance energy efficiency and support sustainable development. However, most studies focus on PV electrical performance, rooftop installations, or building-level applications, with limited consideration of the interaction between urban morphology, building energy demand, and solar energy potential. In the Algerian context, research mainly evaluates technical performance and rooftop suitability, while the influence of building orientation, density, spatial configuration, and open urban spaces on PV deployment remains underexplored. Moreover, previous studies often analyze individual buildings rather than campus-scale or urban-scale energy systems. This study addresses these gaps by proposing an integrated framework that evaluates solar energy potential, building energy consumption, and urban morphological characteristics within a university campus. Using the University of Constantine 3 as a case study, the research assesses PV deployment across multiple campus zones, including rooftops, parking areas, and seating spaces. Unlike conventional approaches that emphasize either technical or economic aspects, this work incorporates a comprehensive assessment that includes energy performance indicators, techno-economic feasibility, and lifecycle environmental impacts. The novelty of this study lies in integrating urban morphology, energy demand, and solar potential within a single analytical framework. The proposed PV system generates approximately 2153 MWh annually, exceeding campus electricity demand by 32.12%, while mitigating about 1126 tons of CO₂ per year. With an exergy-based LCOE of $0.0063/kWh and a payback period of 3.91 years, the system demonstrates strong economic and environmental feasibility. These results highlight the potential for transforming university campuses into energy-positive environments and provide a scalable model for sustainable urban energy planning. Key contributions of this study include:
Development of an integrated framework linking site spatial configuration, building energy demand, and solar energy potential.
Campus-scale assessment using energy indicators such as EUI, SEGI, and NEUI.
Multi-zone PV deployment strategy utilizing rooftops, parking areas, and open spaces.
Integrated techno-economic and lifecycle environmental evaluation of the PV system.
A scalable renewable energy model applicable to urban campuses in Algeria and similar regions.
This section presents the methods and processes used to investigate the impact of integrating a RE system within the university campus, focusing on the urban area for integration, energy consumption patterns, and the potential for solar energy generation. The research flowchart for the considered methodology is summarized in Fig. 1.
To achieve the main objective of the present analysis, several key assumptions were considered. These assumptions ensure consistency and reliability in evaluating the proposed energy system for the target campus:
Solar radiation data were obtained from the Global Solar Atlas, assuming stable climatic conditions.
PV panel efficiency is modeled with gradual degradation, while PV system integration factors are based on the availability of suitable installation areas.
System lifespan is conservatively set at 25 years, corresponding to the expected lifespan of the PV panels.
Energy consumption for the considered campus is derived from historical Sonelgaz electricity bills, assuming stable usage patterns.
Economic parameters include a fixed electricity cost of $0.040/kWh and the continuation of government subsidies. The total investment is calculated based on the energy inventory of the proposed system.
Environmental impacts are assessed using standardized CO₂ emission factors, as well as applicable carbon tax and credit values.
Urban morphology, including building orientation, form, and density, is taken into account, acknowledging that irregular surfaces and unfavorable orientations may limit PV performance.
Collectively, these assumptions form the foundation for the study’s technical, economic, and environmental evaluations, providing a robust framework for generating replicable and reliable results.
The research flowchart.
Algeria is the largest country in Africa, with a total area of 2,381,741 km², ranking as the 10th largest country in the world³⁸. Most of its landmass is characterized by desert landscapes, particularly in the southern regions, which differ significantly in geographical features compared to the north. Algeria’s energy system is diverse, comprising natural gas, fossil fuels, and renewable energy sources³⁹. The country has substantial solar energy potential, with annual solar radiation estimated at 1680 kWh/m²/year in the north and 2410 kWh/m²/year in the south (see Fig. 2). The spatial distribution of solar energy potential shows that northern regions are suitable for small-scale PV systems, while the southern regions offer exceptional potential for large-scale solar farms. This higher solar potential positions Algeria as a leading candidate for solar energy development.
In this investigation, the University of Constantine 3 “Salah Boubnider” is considered as a case study to evaluate the technical, economic, and environmental performance of integrating the RE system into the existing campus energy infrastructure. The university is located in Ali Mendjeli New Town, a suburban area about 15 km southeast of Constantine city center, Algeria. The university is considered part of a modern academic hub designed to accommodate various educational institutions and facilities. The specific coordinates of the selected site are 36.2612°N and 6.6129°E. Constantine is located in eastern Algeria, approximately 450 km east of Algiers, the capital city. The city receives daily global solar irradiation of approximately 4.906 kWh/m², with an annual global horizontal irradiation estimated at 1790.8 kWh/m²/year, based on data from the Global Solar Atlas⁴⁰.
Distribution of solar potential in Algeria https://globalsolaratlas.info/download/algeria.
The available urban areas for integration are illustrated in Fig. 3. Several locations are suitable for PV system implementation, including building rooftops, parking areas, sidewalks, and seating spaces. The university campus comprises seven buildings: the Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning (B1); the Faculty of Arts and Culture (B2); the Faculty of Information, Communication, and Audiovisual Sciences (B3); the Faculty of Process Engineering (B4); the Faculty of Medicine and the Chancellery (B5); the Faculty of Political Science (B6); and the Institute of Urban Technique Management (B7). The selection criteria for suitable solar harvesting areas, together with the corresponding available spaces, are presented in Table 2.
The campus buildings are characterized by diverse shapes and sizes, with each structure occupying a substantial area and comprising separate blocks. This architectural design leads to varied building orientations, posing challenges for the optimal deployment of PV systems. However, the parking and seating areas are well-suited for PV implementation due to their regular shapes, favorable orientations, and minimal sensitivity to partial shading. The installation of PV systems in these areas can utilize up to 100% of the effective harvesting area.
The distribution of selected areas in the University of Constantine 3.
In the selected parking zones, the PV system is proposed to be implemented as an elevated canopy structure serving as a functional cover for vehicles. This configuration preserves the existing parking use while enabling solar energy generation. The supporting frame and installation requirements are included within the lifecycle system boundary presented in Fig. 4.
Although rooftop PV systems are commonly considered in campus-scale studies, the buildings within the selected campus present significant morphological constraints, including irregular roof geometries, multi-level configurations, and varied orientations. These characteristics may reduce effective solar exposure and increase the likelihood of partial shading, thereby limiting the technical feasibility of uniform rooftop PV deployment. Consequently, the proposed framework does not assume universal rooftop suitability but instead differentiates between favorable and constrained surfaces, prioritizing open areas such as parking and seating spaces where solar accessibility is less affected by morphological limitations.
It is important to note that the assessment of built form in this study adopts a functional classification approach based on geometric regularity, surface orientation, and shading exposure (Refer to Table 2), rather than quantitative morphological indices (e.g., Sky View Factor, Floor Area Ratio). This approach prioritizes practical identification of PV-suitable surfaces over parametric urban morphological analysis, which is appropriate for the campus-scale feasibility objectives of this study.
This section details the mathematical calculations conducted to determine the optimal output of the present study, including energy consumption, energy output of the proposed system, as well as its economic and environmental impacts. MATLAB software was selected for the modeling and calculations. It should be noted that the energy consumption data for the present campus is based on information collected from electricity bills provided by the Algerian electricity company, “Sonelgaz”.
The annual energy consumption ((:{E}_{T})) for each building is equivalent to the sum of its monthly energy consumption ((:{E}_{m})) and can be calculated as follows⁴¹:
The energy consumption of a building can be influenced by various factors, including its area, occupancy, and morphology. This study focuses on energy intensity, calculated based on the building’s equipped cross-sectional area. Equation (2) is employed to evaluate the energy intensity⁴¹.
Where (:{A}_{RB}) is the roof area of the building campus.
The electricity consumption data used in this study were obtained from official Sonelgaz billing records corresponding to the total metered electricity supply of each building. Therefore, the reported values include all electrically connected loads within the buildings, including lighting, HVAC systems, office equipment, laboratory equipment, medical devices (where applicable), and auxiliary services. The calculated EUI reflects the total recorded electrical consumption rather than selected end-use categories.
The annual energy production of the PV system ((:{E}_{P})) is another key factor considered in this study. It represents the actual electrical energy expected to be delivered by the integrated PV system over its operational lifetime, taking into account system-level parameters such as integration factors, overall efficiency, and long-term degradation effects. In this study, (:{E}_{P}) is calculated specifically for the covered areas of the bus parking and seating zones, with integration factors ((:{k}_{R})) of 80% and 100% of their total area, respectively. The (:{E}_{P}) can be determined using Eq. (3)²⁶.
Where (:{G}_{A}) is the solar radiation intensity, (:{A}_{RB}) is the selected area for PV implementation, (:eta:) is PV panel efficiency, (:K) is the integrated efficiency factor, (:{R}_{d}) is the attenuation rate of PV power generation, and N is the estimated lifespan of the PV system, which is equivalent to 25 years.
In contrast, the annual solar energy generation of PV modules ((:{E}_{S})) represents the theoretical solar energy yield based solely on solar irradiance, available installation area, and module efficiency, without considering system losses or long-term degradation. This metric is used to evaluate the intrinsic solar potential of the selected site. It is calculated as follows²⁶:
It is important to note that the distinction between (:{E}_{S}) and (:{E}_{p}) is critical: (:{E}_{S}) quantifies the theoretical solar resource potential, whereas (:{E}_{p}) provides a realistic estimate of the actual electrical energy output after accounting for technical and operational factors. Together, these metrics enable a comprehensive assessment of both the solar potential and the practical performance of the system.
After calculating the (:{E}_{S}) for the selected area, the solar generation intensity ((:SEGI)) can be evaluated using the following Equation²⁷:
On the other hand, Net Energy Use Intensity ((:NEUI)) is estimated in the present study to assess building energy consumption with PV deployment comprehensively. This factor represents the annual net energy consumption of buildings, accounting for solar energy generation potential, and is determined using the following equation⁴²:
The proposed PV system is installed over the bus parking and seating areas, which were selected due to their regular geometry, minimal shading, and favorable solar exposure. After applying integration factors of 80% (parking area of 10,480 m²) and 100% (seating area of 1,120 m²), the total effective PV surface area is 9,504 m². Assuming a panel efficiency of 14% under standard test conditions (1 kW/m²), the estimated installed peak capacity is approximately 1.33 MWp. The system is modeled with a south-facing orientation and a fixed tilt angle of 36°, consistent with the site latitude (36.26°N) to maximize annual energy yield. Energy calculations are based on the tilt-specific annual radiation value of 1,675 kWh/m²/year, improving accuracy compared to horizontal irradiation data. A system integration factor (K = 0.865) is applied to account for real-world losses, ensuring realistic annual energy production estimates.
The conventional energy system supplying the campus with electricity is connected to the Algerian grid. Since electricity production in Algeria predominantly relies on natural gas power plants, it is essential to analyze the campus’s environmental impact based on its energy consumption. The emissions associated with the campus’s electricity consumption are calculated as follows⁴³:
On the other hand, the environmental impact of the proposed system during the manufacturing, operation, maintenance, and recycling phases can be calculated using Eq. (8)⁴³.
The mitigated carbon emissions resulting from the implementation of the PV system can be calculated as follows⁴³:
Where (:CExC) represents the cumulative exergy consumption of the proposed PV system, and (:{F}_{i}) denotes the emission factor for the various elements, respectively.
The carbon tax based on the campus’s energy consumption and the CExC of the proposed system can be estimated using Eqs. 13 and 14, respectively, where the carbon tax index ((:{text{t}}_{x,{text{C}text{O}}_{2}})) is equivalent to $20ton/CO₂. Meanwhile, the carbon credit ((:{text{Z}}_{{text{C}text{O}}_{2}})) for the proposed PV system can be estimated using Eq. (15)⁴⁴.
 
Where (:{text{z}}_{{text{C}text{O}}_{2}})is the carbon credit, which is equivalent to $14.5/ton.CO₂.
The (:CExC), derived from the embodied energy consumed by each element of the proposed system, is summarized in Fig. 4. As shown in Fig. 4, the total exergy consumption for the proposed integrated PV system is approximately 8414.9 MWh. This value represents 55% of the total embodied energy consumed over the 25-year lifespan of the system, encompassing all stages of its lifecycle. Therefore, the payback time ((:ExPBT)) and the energy return on investment ((:EROI)) of the proposed system can be calculated as follows⁴⁵:
Distribution of the (:CxEC) during the life cycle of the proposed system.
The monthly cost of electricity ((:{CE}_{m})) for the conventional PV system is obtained from the electrical bills; therefore, the annual cost of electricity ((:{CE}_{T})) can be calculated by the following⁴⁶:
On the other hand, the total investment cost of the proposed system, which includes all capital expenditures such as the cost of materials, installation, and system integration, can be calculated as follows⁴⁷:
The economic benefits of the proposed system are equivalent to the cost of the energy produced and can be calculated as follows²⁵:
Where (:{kappa:}_{ce}) represents the cost of electricity in Algeria’s business rate, which is equivalent to $0.040/kWh.
This section presents and discusses the findings of the current investigation. The analysis covers the energy consumption, economic performance, and environmental impacts of the conventional energy system. This section also includes the estimated outcomes of the energy generation analysis for the proposed PV system, highlighting its benefits and advantages.
The electrical consumption of various buildings within the university campus is presented in Fig. 5. As illustrated, the energy consumption over the six years differs significantly across buildings. This variation is attributed to differences in building sizes, electrical facilities, and the number of energy users. Additionally, the diverse fields of study associated with each building result in varying energy consumption rates. Building 5 exhibits the highest energy consumption compared to the others, primarily because it serves both academic and administrative functions.
Over the six years, the average monthly electricity consumption for Buildings 1 to 7 is approximately 16.23, 15.39, 19.82, 19.57, 23.67, 15.37, and 11.73 MWh/month, respectively. Furthermore, energy consumption during the months of June to September is consistently lower than in other months, which can be explained by the university holiday occurring during this period.
To illustrate the results presented in Fig. 5, the annual energy consumption of each building was calculated, and the corresponding outcomes are displayed in Fig. 6. Building 5 is identified as the most energy-intensive, while Building 7 is the least energy-intensive throughout the study period. Over the six years, the average annual electricity consumption for Buildings 1 to 7 is approximately 194.8, 184.7, 237.89, 234.82, 284.05, 184.44, and 140.8 MWh/year, respectively. It is also evident that energy consumption across all buildings was lower in 2020, primarily due to the study break caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, which significantly reduced university activities during this period. However, despite the reduced campus activities, the energy consumption for this year remained relatively high. This highlights the urgent need to implement energy conservation measures to promote sustainable energy use, as well as economic and environmental development within the university campus.
Collected electricity consumption over the years (A) 2018, (B) 2019, (C) 2020, D)2021, E) 2022, and F) 2023.
Annual electricity consumption for the different buildings.
The electricity production of the proposed PV system is illustrated in Fig. 7. As shown in the Figure, the proposed PV system is capable of supplying an average annual electricity production of 2153 MWh/year under the defined modeling assumptions, which can cover the electricity consumption of the seven buildings on the campus. The higher electricity production capacity of the proposed system is attributed to the high solar potential in the area and the large selected harvesting area on the campus. This electricity output is estimated to be higher by 691.5 MWh/year compared to the building consumption. However, the energy consumption considered in this study only accounts for the electricity consumption of the buildings. Therefore, the estimated remaining produced electricity could potentially meet the energy demand of other loads, such as the outdoor lighting system.
Electricity production for the proposed system over the 25 years.
After evaluating the energy consumption of the campus and estimating the energy production from the proposed PV system, this section investigates the energy output of the system in terms of electricity production and consumption over the course of one year. The results are presented in Fig. 8. It can be observed that the proposed PV system produces, on average, 32.12% more electricity than the campus’s annual electricity consumption. This excess energy can be used to supply other loads on the university campus, such as outdoor lighting. Additionally, it is observed that the selected areas can generate approximately 3115.8 MWh/year, which is 30.9% higher than the annual estimated electricity production and 53.09% greater than the annual energy consumption. The results demonstrate the potential of solar energy to supply the university campus in the selected area.
The energy intensity of the campus buildings is presented in Fig. 9. Figure 9 illustrates the different buildings’ EUI, SEGI, and NEUI. The campus buildings consume approximately 19.6 kWh/m²·year. The calculated EUI values indicate relatively moderate electricity consumption levels during the analyzed period. However, these values should be interpreted strictly based on the recorded billing data. The observed consumption patterns may be influenced by occupancy schedules, academic calendar variations, operational intensity of laboratories and medical facilities, and seasonal factors rather than exclusively reflecting architectural design quality. Therefore, no direct inference regarding building design excellence is drawn solely from the EUI results. Additionally, the solar energy intensity for the selected buildings is approximately 41.6 kWh/m².year, indicating that they effectively harness solar energy. From an energy balance perspective, the recorded EUI values suggest that the proposed PV generation capacity could offset a significant portion of the measured electrical demand under the defined modeling assumptions.
The results also show a negative NEUI of −22.1 kWh/m². year, which indicates that the proposed PV system generates more energy than the buildings require. This surplus energy could either be contributed to the grid or used to supply another campus load, providing a strong indicator of sustainability.
Overall, these findings indicate that, under the adopted modeling assumptions and system boundaries, the proposed PV configuration achieves a modeled net-positive annual energy balance. This result should be interpreted as a scenario-based projection rather than verified operational performance.
Electricity production by using the proposed PV system over one year.
Electricity proposed PV system over one year.
The life cycle assessment of the proposed PV system is presented in this section, and the obtained results are outlined in Table 3. As shown in Table 3, the proposed PV system achieves a lower ExPBT value of 3.908 years, indicating higher efficiency and viability in terms of energy production. This outcome leads to an extended benefit period of 21.092 years, highlighting the system’s potential to deliver long-term energy advantages and supporting its role in sustainable energy applications.
Moreover, the proposed system is found to produce an exergy benefit of 691.54 MWh/year, underscoring its capability to meet energy demands reliably and reinforcing its applicability in large-scale energy generation. Additionally, the proposed PV system demonstrates an EROI value of 6.396:1. This favorable ratio confirms the system’s high efficiency and substantial net energy gains, which are critical parameters for evaluating the viability of renewable energy systems.
Overall, the modeled results indicate that the proposed PV system has the potential to reduce building energy demand from the grid and contribute to improved urban sustainability within the defined analytical assumptions. This aligns with advancing energy transition and resilience, supporting stronger, sustainable development strategies.
The global electricity market is expanding, with electricity costs varying significantly between countries. The availability of energy resources in each country primarily influences these variations. Algeria, in particular, possesses diverse energy resources that can be utilized for electricity generation, contributing to relatively lower electricity costs than other nations. Additionally, the Algerian government subsidizes electricity prices, further reducing costs.
In Algeria, electricity bills for domestic users are issued quarterly, while industrial users are billed monthly. Since university campuses are classified as industrial loads due to their higher energy consumption, they receive monthly electricity bills. In this section, the annual cost of energy consumption for the university campus is calculated, and the results are illustrated in Fig. 10. It can be observed that Building 5 ranks as the highest spender in terms of electricity costs, primarily due to its significantly higher energy consumption compared to other buildings. In contrast, Building 7 exhibits the lowest electricity cost among the analyzed buildings. The results show that the average annual electricity costs for Buildings 1 through 7 are $8830, $8255, $9686, $9806, $18,300, $8139, and $7109, respectively. Meanwhile, the overall annual electricity cost for the entire campus is approximately $70,125.
The results indicate that the university campus allocates a substantial portion of its budget to electricity supplied by the conventional grid system. Integrating renewable energy sources into the campus’s energy supply has the potential to reduce these expenditures significantly. This reduction would enable the reallocation of funds toward other university initiatives, thereby supporting and enhancing the institution’s overall performance and academic standing.
Annual cost of electricity for the different buildings.
The financial metrics related to the proposed PV system are investigated in this section, and the obtained results are presented in Table 4. As shown in Table 4, the total energy cost over one year is approximately $60,107. Meanwhile, the investment cost for the proposed PV system is $336,596, which covers the entire funding for the system over its lifespan. Notably, this corresponds to a specific installation cost of $253/kWp based on the estimated total capacity of 1.33 MWp. This amount is equivalent to 5.6 times the cost of purchasing electricity from the grid. On the other hand, the proposed PV system saves approximately $86,122/year, which is $26,015 higher than the annual cost of purchasing electricity from the grid. This indicates that the proposed PV system is capable of covering its initial investment in 3.91 years. Additionally, the savings per ExBT for the PV system are found to be $1,816,400. These economic benefits suggest that the system can generate approximately $72,656 per year. Furthermore, the proposed PV system offers a lower exergy-based LCOE (ExB_LCOE) of $0.0063/kWh, which is $0.0337/kWh less than the grid’s electricity cost. This implies that the system is highly efficient and cost-effective in its energy generation, making it economically viable and competitive compared to traditional electricity generation methods.
It should be noted that the ExB_LCOE is evaluated using a thermodynamic approach, where capital, installation, and operation costs are converted into their equivalent energy/exergy values. Therefore, the resulting ExB_LCOE represents an energetic cost indicator rather than a direct financial metric. This approach is useful for assessing resource efficiency but may underestimate actual economic costs when compared to conventional discounted cash flow-based LCOE.
The investment cost of $253/kWp reported in this study is based on a CExC approach, reflecting the system’s embodied energy converted to monetary value using local electricity tariffs. Unlike conventional market-based estimates, this method excludes financing, permitting, contractor margins, import duties, and grid connection costs, representing the thermodynamic rather than turnkey cost. For comparison, typical utility-scale PV costs in 2024 are around $691/kWp⁴⁸. Using a market-based cost of $450/kWp, the proposed 1.33 MWp system would require approximately $598,500, with a payback period of 6.95 years, indicating strong economic viability.
Globally, fossil fuels and combustible energy sources dominate electricity production in power plants. These energy sources are significant contributors to atmospheric pollution, with each source characterized by specific emission factors, particularly their global warming potential (GWP). The increasing demand for energy leads to higher production levels, escalating greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and contributing to ozone layer depletion. In Algeria, the demand for electricity has risen significantly in recent years. The country primarily relies on natural gas as the main energy source for electricity generation. While natural gas emits fewer greenhouse gases than hard coal, it remains a notable source of emissions and contributes to environmental challenges. Therefore, this section evaluates the environmental impact associated with the electricity consumption of the university campus. The results of the analysis are presented in Fig. 11.
Figure 11-A illustrates the CO₂ emissions associated with energy consumption across the university campus. The data indicate that Building 5 is the largest contributor to CO₂ emissions, surpassing all other buildings. Over six years, Building 5 has emitted a total of 891.35 tons of CO₂, which is significantly higher by 31.42%, 34.97%, 16.25%, 17.33%, 35.07%, and 50.43% compared to Buildings 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, and 7, respectively. The average annual CO₂ emissions for Buildings 1 through 7 are 101.88, 96.6, 124.42, 122.8, 148.56, 96.46, and 73.64 tons of CO₂, respectively. In terms of GWP, Building 5 contributes an average of 913.50 CO₂.eq.m^− 2.year^− 1, making it the highest emitter. In contrast, Building 7 records the lowest GWP emissions, with an average of 452.82 tons of CO₂.eq.m^− 2.year^− 1 (Refer to Fig. 11-B). The significant CO₂ emissions from campus energy consumption highlight the need for sustainable solutions. Integrating PV systems can reduce emissions, lower electricity costs, and support a greener, more sustainable campus environment.
Equivalent emission for the energy consumption; (A) CO₂ emission, (B) GWP.
Table 5 presents the environmental benefits of the proposed PV system in the selected area, providing comprehensive details, including emitted and mitigated amounts of CO₂ and GWP, net CO₂ intensity, and economic impacts in terms of carbon taxation and credits. Table 5 shows that the equivalent CO₂ emissions from electricity consumption over one year from the grid amount to approximately 764.36 tons of CO₂. In contrast, the total embodied emissions associated with the proposed PV system’s manufacturing, production, and end-of-life stages amount to 4401 tons of CO₂ for the 25-year lifecycle period.
In terms of emissions avoidance, the proposed PV system mitigates approximately 1126 tons of CO₂ emissions annually, along with an avoidance of 1154 kg CO₂.eq.m^− 2.year^− 1 in terms of GWP. The higher energy production of the system results in a net reduction of 361.64 tons.CO₂/year. This finding underscores the critical role of the proposed system in decarbonizing electricity generation, even when accounting for embodied emissions. Notably, the production of 1 kWh of electricity using the proposed system is responsible for emitting approximately 81.8 gCO₂/kWh (lifecycle-average value), less by 441.2 g compared to the emissions from conventional electricity generation systems.
Moreover, the grid electricity production incurs an annual carbon tax of $15,287 due to its operational emissions. Conversely, the embodied emissions of the PV system across its lifecycle are responsible for a total carbon tax of $88,020. However, the PV system generates $16,328 annually in carbon credits, resulting in a net benefit of $53,741. This highlights the system’s economic viability in carbon markets, despite the initial carbon costs associated with its production and implementation.
The analysis confirms the environmental and economic advantages of the proposed PV system, highlighting its role in mitigating CO₂ emissions, reducing GWP, and generating significant carbon credits. By integrating life-cycle considerations, the PV system supports sustainable and green building energy solutions, addressing climate change while promoting eco-friendly energy policy and planning.
The estimation of PV electricity production was carried out using annual-average formulations. Although this approach does not explicitly account for hourly irradiance variability, temperature-dependent losses, or transient shading effects, these factors were implicitly incorporated through system-level assumptions. The integration efficiency factor represents real-world limitations related to orientation, shading, and installation constraints, while the attenuation rate accounts for long-term performance degradation over the assumed 25-year operational lifetime. To validate the reliability of this simplified approach, the solar radiation input was compared with local ground-based measurements. Bouguetaia et al⁴⁹. reported a one-year experimental campaign in eastern Algeria, yielding an annual total of 1603 kWh/m²/year, which differs by less than 10% from the Global Solar Atlas value used in this study (1790.8 kWh/m²/year). This close agreement confirms the representativeness of the adopted solar resource data. In addition, the estimated annual energy yield (2153 MWh) was compared with the results of Mokhtara et al²¹., who employed HOMER Pro dynamic simulations for educational buildings in Algeria and reported an annual output of 2333 MWh. The strong agreement between both studies, despite differences in geographic location and installation area, further supports the robustness of the annual-average modeling approach for strategic feasibility assessment. This assumption-based modeling framework is consistent with campus-scale planning studies, where the primary objective is to evaluate long-term feasibility rather than short-term operational performance. Accordingly, the results should be interpreted as indicative of strategic energy potential rather than precise operational output. Future work may incorporate dynamic simulation tools to enhance the accuracy and resolution of performance predictions.
While the study incorporates built form characteristics (orientation, roof geometry, density) through qualitative spatial classification (Table 2), it does not employ quantitative morphological indicators such as Sky View Factor (SVF), Height-to-Spacing ratios, or Floor Area Ratio (FAR). Consequently, assertions regarding ‘urban morphology’ should be interpreted as descriptive assessments of site-specific spatial constraints rather than statistically generalized morphological correlations. The functional classification adopted herein (favorable vs. unfavorable surfaces) was sufficient for identifying practical PV deployment opportunities; however, future research incorporating parametric morphological metrics is recommended to establish quantitative relationships between specific urban form indicators and solar potential in Algerian contexts. Therefore, the reported influence of building form on energy performance reflects observed site-specific patterns rather than comprehensive morphological causality.
The economic and environmental assessments presented in this study are grounded in lifecycle-based energy boundaries rather than simplified capital cost assumptions. The cumulative exergy consumption of the system, illustrated in Fig. 4, integrates all embodied energy contributions, including manufacturing, installation, operation, and end-of-life processes. This ensures that both environmental indicators and economic metrics, such as payback period and LCOE, are derived from total system energy investment. Consequently, the reported economic performance reflects lifecycle-adjusted productivity rather than component-level cost analysis. This integrated perspective enhances the consistency between technical feasibility and sustainability outcomes. Consequently, the reported payback period reflects lifecycle-adjusted system productivity under the prevailing subsidized electricity structure, rather than a purely market-based financial return.
Solar radiation data were derived from long-term datasets assuming stable climatic conditions. While this approach is appropriate for long-term feasibility assessment, it does not explicitly differentiate between radiation received on surfaces with varying inclinations and orientations. In practice, solar gains vary seasonally and geometrically depending on tilt angle and directional exposure. Within the campus context, most selected installation areas are either horizontal or moderately inclined, which reduces sensitivity to orientation effects. However, incorporating tilt-dependent and orientation-specific radiation analysis would enable more precise estimation of seasonal generation patterns. Future analyses may benefit from integrating monthly radiation mapping to optimize panel deployment strategies across different surface types.
Although the proposed PV system generates 32.12% more electricity annually than the campus demand, this energy balance is not temporally uniform. Based on the solar radiation fraction reported by Adun et al⁵⁰. solar availability in Constantine exhibits pronounced seasonal variability, increasing from approximately 56–65% during winter months to 91–98% in summer. Consequently, a substantial portion of the annual PV output (2153 MWh/year) is concentrated between June and September, which coincides with reduced campus activity and lower electricity demand, as previously discussed. In contrast, during winter months, when solar availability is significantly lower, campus demand remains relatively higher due to normal academic operations. This temporal mismatch indicates that annual energy autonomy does not necessarily translate into monthly or seasonal self-sufficiency, with potential surplus generation in summer and deficits during low-radiation periods.
From a practical perspective, this temporal imbalance highlights the importance of incorporating advanced energy management strategies, such as grid interaction, demand-side flexibility, and the future integration of energy storage systems, to enhance system reliability and optimize energy utilization. While the present study adopts an annual-average framework consistent with its scenario-based feasibility scope, integrating detailed monthly or seasonal energy balance analysis would provide a more comprehensive understanding of system performance and further strengthen design robustness.
The occurrence of seasonal surplus energy is a well-recognized characteristic of PV-based systems. Rather than representing a limitation, this excess generation constitutes a valuable opportunity for enhancing system flexibility and expanding energy applications. Within the campus context, surplus electricity could be effectively utilized to supply auxiliary loads such as outdoor lighting, electric mobility infrastructure, and cooling systems. In addition, grid export mechanisms or future storage integration may further improve energy management and utilization efficiency. From a strategic perspective, excess generation should be interpreted as an enabling resource that supports broader campus electrification, operational resilience, and long-term decarbonization objectives.
It is important to emphasize that all reported performance indicators represent modeled outcomes based on long-term average climatic data, predefined technical parameters, and assumed economic conditions. Therefore, the results should be interpreted as feasibility-oriented projections rather than measured operational validation. Field implementation and real-time monitoring would be required to confirm actual system performance.
The robustness of the present analysis is substantiated through a multi-layered validation framework. Initially, the electricity consumption baseline was established utilizing six years of official utility billing records, thereby ensuring both data consistency and representativeness. Subsequently, solar radiation inputs were sourced from the Global Solar Atlas, which employs long-term satellite-derived datasets that are extensively recognized and utilized within PV feasibility studies. Furthermore, the mathematical formulations employed for energy production, lifecycle exergy analysis, and environmental impact assessment were derived from peer-reviewed literature, thus maintaining methodological rigor and consistency. Additionally, internal numerical verification was performed by cross-referencing annual PV generation estimates with measured campus energy demand, thereby affirming logical coherence in the modeled energy balance. It is important to acknowledge that the validation approach adopted in this study is analytical and data-driven, as opposed to being based on operational measurements, given that the PV system under consideration represents a proposed implementation scenario rather than an existing installation.
While the present framework provides a robust basis for evaluating renewable energy integration at the campus scale, several methodological limitations should be acknowledged. The analysis relies on long-term average solar data and simplified PV performance modeling, which do not explicitly capture hourly variability, detailed seasonal dynamics, or orientation-specific irradiation effects. Additionally, urban morphology was incorporated through functional spatial classification rather than advanced parametric indicators. The study also does not include dynamic storage modeling or operational surplus energy management strategies.
These simplifications are consistent with the strategic planning scope of the study; however, they may influence the precision of short-term performance estimation and seasonal energy balancing. Future research could incorporate high-resolution simulations, detailed morphological metrics, seasonal radiation analysis, and storage-integrated energy management scenarios. Such developments would enhance the representation of temporal variability and further strengthen the linkage between urban form, renewable generation, and operational resilience.
Algeria’s rapid urbanization and growing energy demands necessitate innovative strategies to enhance energy efficiency and sustainability. This study investigates the integration of PV systems at the University of Constantine 3, providing a framework for renewable energy implementation in urban settings. Through analyses of energy consumption patterns, solar energy potential, and urban morphology, the research highlights critical factors for optimizing energy generation and efficiency in university campuses.
The ‘study’s contributions include a multicriteria analysis for optimal site selection, considering parameters such as rooftop orientation, building density, and available space. It also highlights the influence of site spatial configuration and built form on renewable energy efficiency, offering valuable guidance for urban planners and policymakers. The proposed PV system demonstrates significant potential, generating 2153 MWh annually, which is 32.12% more than thecampus’s electricity needs, while mitigating 1126 tons of CO₂ emissions each year. Economically, the system is highly feasible, achieving a payback period of 3.91 years and an exergy-based LCOE of $0.0063/kWh.
Overall, this study proposes a scalable modeling framework for evaluating renewable energy integration in urban environments. While the outcomes are derived from scenario-based simulations, the findings provide strategic insights that may inform renewable energy planning and sustainable urban development in Algeria and comparable regions.
The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
The custom MATLAB code used in this study, solely for plotting the results obtained from HOMER software, is available upon request from the corresponding author.
Photovoltaic
Renewable Energy
Levelized Cost of Energy
Exergy‑based Levelized Cost of Energy
Building-Integrated Photovoltaic
Energy Use Intensity
Solar Energy Generation Intensity
Net Energy Use Intensity
Global Warming Potential
Exergy Payback Time
Exergy Benefit Time
Energy Return on Investment
Cumulative Exergy Consumption
Efficiency
PV integrated efficiency factor
Cost of electricity
Attenuation rate of PV power generation
Estimated lifespan of the PV system
Integration factor
Emission factor
Carbon tax index
Carbon credit
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Laboratory from architecture to town planning, techniques space and society “LAUTES”, Department of Urban Planning, Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning, University of Constantine 3, Salah Boubnider, Ali Mendjeli, El Khroub, Constantine, 25100, Algeria
Amina Bekkouche & Fatiha Benidir
Department of Computer System & Technology, Faculty of Computer Science, and Information Technology, University Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, 50603, Malaysia
Abdelhak Lekbir
Department of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Hormuud University, Mogadishu, Somalia
Abdullahi Mohamed Samatar
School of Engineering, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, VIC, 3122, Australia
Saad Mekhilef
Power Electronics and Renewable Energy Research Laboratory (PEARL), Department of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, 50603, Malaysia
Abdelhak Lekbir & Saad Mekhilef
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Amina Bekkouche Formal analysis, Investigation, Data curation, Methodology, Writing – original draft. Fatiha Benidir Supervision, Writing – Review & Editing. Abdelhak Lekbir Formal analysis, Software, Investigation, Data curation, Methodology, Writing – original draft. Abdullahi Mohamed Samatar Formal analysis, Investigation, Data curation, Methodology, Writing – original draft. Saad Mekhilef Project administration, Supervision, Writing – Review & Editing.
Correspondence to Abdullahi Mohamed Samatar.
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Bekkouche, A., Benidir, F., Lekbir, A. et al. Benchmarking energy consumption and solar energy potential for sustainable photovoltaic integration in university campus buildings. Sci Rep 16, 18076 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-47733-x
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Received: 25 November 2025
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Published: 18 April 2026
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-47733-x
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