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Nature Synthesis (2026)
Traditional perovskite research mainly focuses on thermodynamically stable structures, limiting new architecture development. Here we introduce a selective iodoplumbate cold casting (SICC) process, enabling the formation of kinetic products that correspond to local minima in the reaction energy landscape. By combining simplified precursors with room-temperature crystallization, SICC can replicate reactant compositional changes, enabling the creation of diverse structures that are unattainable with conventional methods. We present a low-dimensional corrugated structure using a cation that is typically known to form three-dimensional (3D) perovskite. In addition, kinetically stabilized n = 1 two-dimensional (2D) perovskite films show grain sizes equivalent to their correlation length and a mixed orientation with >21% out-of-plane alignment. These features enhance vertical charge transport and provide a beneficial band alignment for 3D:2D heterostructures. The high phase purity and crystal features are also reproduced in perovskites with N > 1. To prove SICC’s scalability, a 50-cm2 3D:2D perovskite mini-module was fabricated. This SICC-based mini-module achieved an impressive efficiency of 22.15% and a geometric fill factor of 94.36%. It also demonstrated outstanding stability, maintaining T90 for 1,200 h under maximum power point tracking conditions at ~50 °C.
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We thank M. S. Lee (National Center for Inter-university Research Facilities at Seoul National University; HR-XRD measurement) and E. Tsai (Brookhaven National Laboratory, GIWAXS) for their help during the study. This work was supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant funded by the Korea government (MSIT, grant RS-2026-25472379 to Y.-W.J). This work was supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea under the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (grants RS-2023-00282896 and RS-2023-00279529 to M.C.). The work at Rice University was supported by the DOE-EERE DE-EE0010738 programme (A.D.M.). I.M. acknowledges the financial support from the Hertz Foundation and the National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship Program. This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship Program under grant NSF 20-587. Any opinions, findings and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation. M.G.K. was supported by the Paula M. Trienens Institute for Sustainability and Energy at Northwestern University. S.L. was supported by Basic Science Research Program through the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by the Ministry of Education (grant 2021R1A6A3A13046255).
Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA
Yeoun-Woo Jang, Faiz Mandani, Jianlin Zhou & Aditya D. Mohite
Global Frontier Center for Multiscale Energy Systems, Seoul National University, Gwanak-gu, Seoul, Republic of Korea
Yeoun-Woo Jang & Mansoo Choi
School of Civil, Environmental and Architectural Engineering, Korea University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
Seungmin Lee, Oui Jin Oh & Jun Hong Noh
School of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
Yongseok Yoo
Green and Sustainable Materials R&D Department, Korea Institute of Industrial Technology, Cheonan, Republic of Korea
Yongseok Yoo, Hee Jeong Park & Seunghwan Bae
Department of Materials Science and Nanoengineering, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA
Isaac Metcalf
Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Korea University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
Hee Jeong Park
Department of Materials Science and Engineering and Research Institute of Advanced Materials, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
Byeongjun Gil & Miyoung Kim
Condensed Matter Physics and Materials Sciences Department, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Brookhaven, NY, USA
Byeongjun Gil
Frontier Energy Solution Co. Ltd., Ulsan, Republic of Korea
Jihun Jang
Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
Jared Fletcher & Mercouri G. Kanatzidis
Advanced Photovoltaics Research Center, Korea Institute of Scienee and Technology, Seoul, Republic of Korea
Byungsoo Kang
Department of Integrative Energy Engineering and KU-KIST Green School Graduate School of Energy and Environment, Korea University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
Jun Hong Noh
Univ Rennes, INSA Rennes, CNRS, Institut Fonctions Optiques pour les Technologies de l’Information, Rennes, France
Jacky Even
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
Mansoo Choi
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Y.-W.J. conceived the idea and designed the processes. Y.-W.J., A.D.M. and M.C. led the development of the idea, with assistance from J.E., M.G.K., S.B. and J.H.N. Y.-W.J. and A.D.M. co-wrote the original draft, and all authors participated in the review and editing. Y.-W.J. and A.D.M. conducted the data analysis and conceptualization. Visualization was conducted by S.L. and Y.-W.J., and photoluminescence analysis was performed by S.L. on the MA2PbI4 experiment. J.Z. conducted SEM measurements on the MA2PbI4 and BA2PbI4 experiments. Y.-W.J. and Y.Y. carried out the SICC process, fabricated the small-area and large-area perovskite films and dot device, conductivity measurement and high-resolution 1D-XRD analysis. Y.Y. performed the SCLC. I.M. conducted the GIWAXS analysis, with interpretation by Y.-W.J., I.M., J.E. and A.D.M. Stability tests were conducted by H.J.P., Y.Y. and Y.-W.J. H.J.P. and Y.-W.J. conducted the solution absorption measurments, FTIR and correlation length analysis. F.M. explored the SICC process’ applicability of various 2D perovskites. B.G. performed TEM analysis and structural interpretation. Y.-W.J. conducted c-AFM and photoluminescence analysis. J.F. and S. L. conducted the PYSA. Y.-W.J. and S.L. fabricated the solar cell. Y.-W.J., Y.Y. and S.L. fabricated mini-modules under the leadership of M.C. Laser scribing was conducted by J.J. B.K. conducted XRD analysis of n = 2 2D perovskite. S.L. and O.J.O. conducted the series resistance measurement and pseudo FF analysis.
Correspondence to Yeoun-Woo Jang, Mansoo Choi or Aditya D. Mohite.
The authors declare no competing interests.
Nature Synthesis thanks Lung-Chien Chen, Oussama Er-raji and the other, anonymous, reviewer(s) for their contribution to the peer review of this work. Primary Handling Editor: Alexandra Groves, in collaboration with the Nature Synthesis team.
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Supplementary Figs. 1–34, Supplementary Tables 1–5, Supplementary Notes 1–3 and Supplementary References.
Source data for Fig. 1, DMSO,DMF (1,8).
Source data for Fig. 2, GIWAXS SICC (x axis).
Source data for Fig. 3, conductivity control.
Source data for Fig. 4, 3D module statistics.
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Jang, YW., Lee, S., Yoo, Y. et al. Selective iodoplumbate cold casting for kinetically stabilized perovskites leading to high-efficiency photovoltaic modules. Nat. Synth (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s44160-026-01070-z
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